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Mule Deer

Class-Mammalia
Order-Artiodactyla
Family-Cervidae
Sub Family-Capreolinae
Genus-Odocoileus
Species-Hemionus
Weight-125 to 360 Pounds
Length with tail-50 to 85''
Shoulder Height-3 feet
Sexual Maturity-2 years
Mating Seasos-October through November
Gestation Period-195 to 216 days
Number of Young-1 to 4 Avgerage
Birth Interval-1 year
Lifespan-24+ years in the wild, if Nocturnal & Well pertected from predators
Typical diet-various vegetation

The mule deer Odocoileus hemionus, is a deer whose habitat is in the western half of North America. It gets its name from its large mule-like ears. Its closest relative is the black-tailed deer considered a subspecies of mule deer. Unlike its eastern cousin, the white-tailed deer, mule deer are generally more associated with the land west of the Missouri River. The most noticeable differences between whitetails and muleys are the color of their tails and Antlers.

 The mule deer's tail is black tipped. Mule deer antlers "fork" as they grow rather than branching from a single main beam as with white-tails. Each year a buck's antlers start to grow in spring and are shed after mating season from mid-January to mid-April. Mule deer bucks have somewhat more prominent ears than females.

The mule deer is the largest of the Odocoileus genus, standing, on the average, 40 to 42 inches at the shoulders and stretching 80 inches or so nose to tail. An adult buck will weigh from 150 to 300 pounds on the hoof, with does averaging 100 to 175 pounds. With the occasional trophy-sized mule deer buck may weigh in around 450 pounds. Instead of running, mule deer move with a bounding leap stotting with all four feet coming down together. Adult male mule deer are called bucks, adult females are called does, and young of both sexes are called fawns.

Comparisons, The Mule Deer, while closely related to the eastern species the WhiteTailed deer, are remarkably distinct in their biological, Ecological, and behavioral attributes. The Mule Deer carries its thin, black-tipped tail drooped, unlike the uplifted, bushy white tail of its cousin. They have a distinctly different gait from the leisurely, graceful leaps of the white tail. When startled, a Mule Deer will move in a series of stiff legged jumps with all four feet hitting the ground together. Mule Deer are usually a dark gray-brown, with a small white rump patch and a small, black tipped tail. Their large ears are distinctive. White-tail deer are tan in color, with a larger tail. Mule Deer antlers are normally smaller and branch to form 2 equal forks, while the male WhiteTailed Deer has forward curving antlers with a number of points tine branching from the main beam.

Description, Mule Deer have large ears that move constantly and independently, from whence they get their name, "Mule" or "Burro Deer." They do not run as other deer, but have a peculiar and distinctive bounding leap stotting over distances up to 8 yards, with all 4 feet coming down together. In this fashion, they can reach a speed of 45 m.p.h. for short periods. This stocky deer with sturdy legs is 4 to 6-1/2 feet in length and 3 to 3-1/2 feet high at the shoulder. During the summer, the coat on its upper body is yellow-or reddish-brown, while in winter more gray. The throat patch, rump patch, inside ears and inside legs are white with lower portions running cream to tan. A dark V-shaped mark, extending from a point between the eyes upward and laterally is characteristic of all Mule Deer but is more conspicuous in males. Males are larger than females.

The bucks' antlers, which start growth in spring and are shed around December each year, are high and branch forward, forking equally into 2 tines with a spread up to 4 feet. Mule Deer are slower and less colorful than the White-tailed Deer, but its pastel, gray-buff color provides a physical adaptation to the desert environment which disguises it from predators like the Mountain Lion, the Coyote and the Bald Aigle who will swoop down on a fawn. Mule Deer have no canine teeth and, like the cow, have a multi-part stomach, the first two chambers of which act as temporary storage bins. Food stored here can be digested later when the deer chews its cud. The tail is usually tipped in black with a white basal portion, and its under parts are white. The Mule Deer large ear is gray on the outside and white on the inside. Feet Another physical adaptation, its larger feet, allows the Mule Deer to claw out water as much as two feet deep, which it detects with its keen sense of smell.

Behavior, In addition to movements related to available shelter and food, the breeding cycle is important in understanding deer behavior. The "rut" or mating season usually begins in the fall as does go into estrus for a period of a few days and males become more aggressive, competing for mates. Does may mate with more than one buck and go back into estrus within a month if they do not mate. The gestation period is approximately 190 to 200 days, with fawns born in the spring, staying with their mothers during the summer and being weaned in the fall after approximately 60 to 75 days. A buck's antlers fall off during the winter, to grow again in preparation for the next season's rut. For more information see main article on deer. Seasonal movements involving migrations from higher elevations summer Habitat to lower winter ranges are associated, in part, with decreasing temperatures, severe snowstorms, and snow depths that reduce mobility and food supply. Deep snows ultimately limit useable range to a fraction of the total.

Mule Deer in the arid southwest may migrate in response to rainfall patterns. When startled, a Mule Deer will move in a series of stiff-legged jumps with all four feet hitting the ground together. This gait offers two advantages: it allows the deer to out-distance predators in rough terrain, and to see above the thick brush. If necessary, they can turn or completely reverse direction in the course of a single bound. Mule Deer are active primarily in mornings, evenings and moonlit nights. This inactivity during the heat of the day is a behavioral adaptation to the desert environment that Conserves Lake Water and keeps the body temperature within livable limits. Sweat glands and panting also provide evaporative cooling during hot periods. During the middle of the day, the Mule Deer beds down in a cool, secluded place. The mature buck seems to prefer rocky ridges for bedding grounds, while the doe and fawn is more likely to bed down in the open. Deer are not especially vocal, although young fawns bleat on occasion. Injured deer utter a startlingly loud "blatt" or bawl.

Food, In summer it chiefly forages on not only herbaceous plants, but also various berries including blackberry, huckleberry, salal, and thimbleberry. In winter, it forages on conifers especially twigs of Douglas fir, cedar, Taxus yews, aspen, willow, dogwood, serviceberry, juniper, and sage. Year-round, it eats acorns and apples. Mule Deer grazing in Zion National Park. A Mule Deer doe grazing near the Devon Lakes.Mule deer prefer "edge" habitats and tend to move up or down with their preferred foods. Mule deer rarely travel far from water or forage, and tend to bed down within easy walking distance of both. Young mule deer tend to forage together in family groups while bucks tend to travel alone or with other bucks. Most actively foraging around dawn and dusk, they tend to bed down in protected areas mid-day, but will also forage at night in more open agricultural areas or when pressured by hunters. Repeated beds will often be scratched level, about the size of a washtub. Temporary beds will seem little more than flatened grass. The Mule Deer is quite varied. In Spring and Summer it feeds on green leaves, herbs, weeds and grasses. The reverse is true in Fall and Winter. Mule Deer are browsers and eat a great variety of vegetable matter, including fresh green leaves, twigs, lower branches of trees, and various grasses. They are particularly fond of blackberry and raspberry vines, grapes, mistletoe, mushrooms and ferns. They eat so carefully they can even consume the fruit of cactus.

Range, Throughout the entire western United States, including the four deserts of the American Southwest, Mule Deer move between various zones from the forest edges at higher elevations to the desert floor, depending on the season. While the Mule Deer occupies almost all types of habitat within its range, it seems to prefer arid, open areas and rocky hillsides.

Breeding, The mating season for Mule Deer reaches its peak in November and December, as antlered stags round up females and fight for their possession. Antlers are shed after the breeding season, from mid-January to about mid-April. Most mature bucks in good condition have lost theirs by the end of February; immature bucks generally lose them a little later. Males and females mix freely while traveling together in groups during winter months, often down to the desert floor. Dominance is largely a function of size, with the largest males, which possess the largest antlers, performing most of the copulations. Mule Deer breed in late November and early December. A buck will find a suitable doe and they will often play chase games at breakneck speeds before mating. They will remain together for several days. When antlers start growing again in the spring, the group breaks up.

The females go off by themselves and eventually give birth and nurse their young, the males wander in friendly Quadruplit { 4 } or small bands throughout the summer months as antlers grow. From April through June, after about a 200 day gestation period, the doe delivers 1 to 4 young normally 2. Fawns are born in late May or early June. A doe will usually produce a single fawn the first year she gives birth and then produce twins in following years. The fawn, colored reddish with white spots, weighs about 6 pounds at birth. It must nurse within the first hour and stand within the first 12 hours. During early weeks of life, the fawn sees its mother only at mealtimes for feeding. Spots begin to fade by the end of the first month. They have white camouflage spots and are further protected by having little or no scent. Fawns usually stay with the doe for the first full year.

Conservation, Life span in the wild is 13 to 27 years, but Mule Deer have lived up to 25 years in captivity. All federal, state, and provincial land and wildlife management agencies recognize the fundamental need to maintain Mule Deer ranges and keep them habitable. To counter the trend of agricultural development, rangeland conversion, mining, road and highway construction, and the development of housing tracts, many states and provinces have purchased critical areas, especially winter ranges, to maintain the various habitats of Mule Deer. But, due to political opposition to government acquisition of privately owned lands, plus a scarcity of funds for this purpose, only a small fraction of Mule Deer ranges has been acquired by the government.

Be Cautious, Just like any other living thing they may have some horrible disease. There is some competition between the Mute Deer and the livestock on the range, especially in Spring and early Summer. Also, Hoof and Mouth Disease and other diseases can be transmitted from the Deer to the livestock, EXT. Douglas fir and Ponderosa pine are of major economic importance for commercial timber. However, these trees are browsed heavily by O. hemionus. Browsing of other trees is seldom considered an economic problem. This situation invites browsing of sufficient intensity to influence forest regeneration in many areas Mule Deer is a target for various viral, bacterial, and parasitic diseases. For example, heavy amounts of gastrointestinal nematodes may cause death in Mule Deer. This parasitic disease is usually indicative of such predisposing factors as high Mule Deer density and malnutrition.

CWD Cronic Wasteing Disease, Lime Disease & other Deadly diseases have been found to transmit to humans and have caused around 5 to 10 deaths because the deer were infected and the hunters didn't know this.

Facts About Mulies, *Mule Deer Are excellent swimmers, but water is rarely used as a means of escaping predators.

*The annual cycle of antler growth in Mule Deer is initiated and controlled by changes in day length acting on several cell types of the anterior pituitary*

*While unable to detect motionless objects, Mule Deer is extraordinarily sensitive to moving objects. The Mule Deer sense of hearing is also extremely acute. For Native Americans and early European settlers, deer meat venison provided one of the most important sources of protein.

*Sport hunters kill about 1 million Mule Deer and 2 million White-tailed Deer annually. Deer hides were used to make buckskin jackets, moccasins and other leather Clothing*

*Mule Deer Have one of the Largest Growing tissues, because their antlers are just like Elk, they keep branching, but elk Antlers Always spike out backwards toward their back.*

Whitetail

Kingdom-Animalia
Phylum-Chordata
Class-Mammalia
Order-Artiodactyla
Family-Cervidae
Subfamily-Odocoileinae
Genus-Odocoileus
Species-O. virginianus

The White-tailed deer Odocoileus virginianus, also known as the Virginia deer, or simply as the whitetail, is a medium-sized deer found throughout most of the continental United States, southern Canada, Mexico, Central America and northern portions of South America as far south as Peru. The species is most common east of the American cordillera, and is absent from much of the western United States, including Nevada, Utah, and California though its close relatives, the mule deer and black-tailed deer, can be found there. It does, however, survive in aspen parklands and deciduous river bottomlands within the Central and Northern Great Plains, and in mixed deciduous riparian corridors, river valley bottomlands, and lower foothills of the Northern Rocky Mountain Regions from Wyoming to Southeastern British Columbia.

The conversion of land adjacent to the Northern Rocky Mountains into agriculture use and partial clear-cutting of coniferous trees resulting in widespread deciduous vegetation is in favor of white-tailed deer in this region. The westernmost population, the Columbian white-tailed deer once was widespread in the mixed forests along the Willamette River Willamette Valley Forests Ecoregion and Cowlitz River Valleys of Western Oregon and Southwestern Washington endangered. There are also populations of Arizona coues and Carmen Mountains carminis white-tailed deer that inhabit the mountain mixed deciduous/pine forests of Arizona, New Mexico, and West Texas extending southwards into Mexico.

As a result of introductions, white-tailed deer are found also in localised areas of northern Europe such as Finland. White-tailed deer are generalists and can adapt to a wide variety of habitats. Although most often thought of as forest animals depending on relatively small openings and edges, white-tailed deer can equally adapt themselves to life in more open savanna and even sage communities as in Texas and in the Venezuelan llanos region. These savanna adapted deer have relatively large antlers in proportion to their body size and large tails. Also, there is a noticeable difference in size between male and female deer of the savannas.

Description, The deer's coat is a reddish-brown in the spring and summer and turns to a grey-brown throughout the fall and winter. The deer can be recognized by the characteristic white underside to its tail, which it shows as a signal of alarm by raising the tail during escape. The male also known as a buck usually weighs from 130 to 220 pounds 60 to 100 kg but, in rare cases, animals in excess of 350 pounds 160 kg have been recorded. The female doe usually weighs from 90 to 130 pounds 40 to 60 kg, but some can weigh as much as 165 to 175 pounds 75 or 80 kg. Males one year of age or older have antlers. Young bucks whose antlers have not grown more than 3 inches are often termed "button bucks". Some button bucks have their antler pedicles hidden in their hair and are often mistaken as young does.

Antlers begin to grow in late spring, covered with a highly vascularised tissue known as velvet or, occasionally, moss. Bucks either have a typical or atypical antler arrangement. Typical antlers are symmetrical on both sides and the points grow straight up off the main beam. Atypical antlers are asymmetrical and the points are going in any direction off the main beam. These descriptions are not the only limitations for typical and atypical antler arrangement. The Boone and Crockett Club or Pope & Young scoring systems also dictate what constitutes a typical or atypical antler arrangement on a harvested or non-harvested buck by measuring how many inches of antler are non-symmetrical. Therefore, bucks with slightly asymmetrical arrangements are commonly referred to as typical. A buck's inside spread can be any where from 3-25 inches 8-64 cm. Bucks shed their antlers when all females have been bred, from late December to February.

Breeding, Females enter estrus colloquially called the rut, in the fall, normally in late October or early November, triggered mainly by declining photoperiod. Sexual maturation of females depends on population density. Females can mature in their first year, although this is unusual and would occur only at very low population levels. Most females mature at one or, sometimes, two years of age. Males compete for the opportunity of breeding females. Sparring among males determines a dominance hierarchy. Bucks will attempt to copulate with as many females as possible, losing physical condition since they rarely eat or rest during the rut. The general geographical trend is for the rut to be shorter in duration at increased latitude. Females give birth to one, two or even possibly three spotted young, known as fawns in mid to late spring, generally in May or June.

Fawns lose their spots during the first summer and will weigh from 44 to 77 pounds 20 to 35 kg by the first winter. Male fawns tend to be slightly larger and heavier than females. Whitetails communicate in many different ways including sounds, scent, and marking. All whitetail deer are capable of producing audible noises, unique to each animal. Fawns release a high pitched squeal, known as a bleat, to call out to their mothers. Does also bleat, as well as grunt. Grunting produces a low, guttural sound that will attract the attention of any other deer in the area. Both does and bucks snort, a sound that often signals danger. As well as snorting, bucks also grunt at a pitch thats gets lower with maturity. Bucks are unique, however, in their grunt-snort-wheeze pattern that often shows aggression and hostility. Whitetails possess many glands that allow them to produce scents, some of which are so potent they can be detected by the human nose. Three major glands are the orbital, tarsal, and metatarsal glands. Orbital glands are found on the head, and scent is deposited from them by rubbing the head, often the area around the eyes, on hanging twigs. The tarsal glands are found on the lower outside of each hind leg. Scent is deposited from these glands when deer walk through and rub against vegetation. The metatarsal glands, found on the inside "knee" of each hind leg, are the most potent. During the breeding season, deer will rub-urinate, a process during which a deer squats while urinating so that urine will run down the insides of the deer's legs. The deer then rubs its metatarsal glands together, rubbing the urine into the tuft of hair found at this location. Secretions from the metatarsal gland mix with the urine and bacteria to produce a strong smelling odor.

Also in breeding season, does release hormones and pheromones that tell bucks the doe is in heat and able to breed. Markings are a very obvious way that whitetail communicate. Although bucks do most of the marking, does visit these locations often. One form of marking is known as rubbing. To make a rub, a buck will use its antlers to strip the bark off of small diameter trees, helping to mark his territory and polish his antlers. Also to help mark territory, bucks will make scrapes. Often occurring in patterns known as scrape lines, scrapes are areas where a buck has used its front hooves to expose bare earth.  Bucks usually then rub-urinate into these scrapes and scrapes are often found under twigs that have been marked with scent from orbital glands.

Range, Commercial exploitation unregulated hunting and poor land-use practices, including deforestation severely depressed deer populations in much of their range. For example, by about 1930, the U.S. population was thought to number about 300,000. After an outcry by hunters and other conservation ecologists, commercial exploitation of deer became illegal and conservation programs along with regulated hunting were introduced to solve the problem. Recent estimates put the deer population in the United States at around 30 million. Conservation practices have proved so successful that, in parts of their range, the white-tailed deer populations currently far exceed their carrying capacity and the animal may be considered a nuisance. Motor vehicle collisions with deer are a serious problem in many parts of the animal's range, especially at night and during rutting season, causing injuries and fatalities among both deer and humans. At high population densities, farmers can suffer economic damage by deer depredation of cash crops, especially in maize and orchards.

The species is the state animal of Arkansas, Illinois, Mississippi, New Hampshire, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Michigan, South Carolina, and Wisconsin, as well as the provincial animal of Saskatchewan. The profile of a White-tailed deer buck caps the Vermont coat-of-arms and can be seen in the Flag of Vermont and in stained glass at the Vermont State House. Texas is home to more white-tailed deer than any other U.S. state or Canadian province, with an estimated population over four million. High populations of white-tailed deer occur in the Edwards Plateau of Central Texas. Michigan, Minnesota, Mississippi, New Jersey, New York, and Pennsylvania also boast high deer densities. White-tailed deer were introduced to Finland in 1935. The introduction was successful, and the deer have recently begun spreading through northern Scandinavia and southern Karelia, competing with, and sometimes displacing, native fauna. The current population of some 30,000 deer originate from four animals provided by Finnish Americans from Minnesota. In many states in the U.S. and in several Canadian provinces, hunting for white-tailed deer is deeply ingrained in local cultures and is central to the economy of many rural areas.

There is a population of white-tailed deer in New York State that is entirely white except for areas like their noses and toes - not albino - in color. The former Seneca Army Depot in Romulus, New York, has the largest known concentration of white deer. Strong conservation efforts have allowed white deer to thrive within the confines of the depot. In the western portions of the United States and Canada, the white-tailed deer range overlaps with those of the black-tailed deer and mule deer. In the extreme north of the range, their habitat is also used by moose in some areas. White-tails may occur in areas that are also exploited by elk wapiti such as in mixed deciduous river valley bottomlands and formerly in the mixed deciduous forest of Eastern United States. In places such as Glacier National Park in Montana and several national parks in the Columbian Mountains Mount Revelstoke National Park and Canadian Rocky Mountains, i.e, Yoho National Park and Kootenay National Park, white-tailed deer are shy and more reclusive than the coexisting mule deer, elk, and moose.

Food, Whitetail deer eat large varieties of plants, including shoots, leaves, and grasses. They also eat acorns, fruit, and field corn or any kind of corn. They have a special stomach that allows them to eat some things that humans cannot, such as mushrooms that are poisonous to humans. Their diet varies in the seasons according to availability of food sources.

Simularity, Until recently some taxonomists have attempted to separate white-tailed deer into a host of subspecies, based largely on morphological differences. Genetic studies, however, suggest that there are fewer subspecies within the animal's range as compared to the 30 to 40 subspecies that some scientists described in the last century. The Florida Key deer, O. virginianus clavium, and the Columbian white-tailed deer, O. virginianus leucurus, are both listed as endangered under the U.S. Endangered Species Act.

The dominant subspecies across the deer's range is the Virginia white-tail, O. virginianus virginianus which is also the type species for the Odocoileus genus. White-tailed deer have tremendous genetic variation and are adaptable to several environments. Several local deer populations, especially in the Appalachian Mountains and Piedmont Regions of Eastern United States are descended from white-tailed deer transplanted from other areas. Some of these deer may have been from northern mixed forests in the Great Lakes Region, or from more open savannas and riparian bottomlands in the midwest and Texas, yet are also quite at home in the Appalachian Mountains and Piedmont Regions.

These deer over time have intermixed with the local indigenous deer populations. Central and South America have a complex number of white-tailed deer subspecies that range from southern Mexico as far south as Peru. This list of subspecies of deer is more exhaustive than the North American list of subspecies and is also questionable, but populations are difficult to study due to over-hunting in many parts and lack of protection. Some areas no longer carry deer, so it is difficult to assess the genetic difference of these animals.

Central American white-tailed deer prefer tropical dry deciduous forests, seasonal mixed deciduous forests, and savanna habitats over dense rainforests and cloud forests. South American subspecies of white-tailed deer live in two types of environment. The first environment is the savannas, dry deciduous forests, and riparian corridors of southern Venezuela and eastern Colombia. The other environment is the higher elevation mountain grassland/mixed forest ecozones in the Andes Mountains from Venezuela to Bolivia and Peru. The Andean white-tailed deer seem to retain gray coats due to the colder weather at high altitudes, whereas the lowland savanna forms retain the reddish brown coats. South American white-tailed deer, like those in Central America, generally avoid dense rainforests and cloud forests. Perhaps the biggest overall genetic distinction is between North American white-tailed deer and the South American white-tailed deer.

Columbian BlackTail Deer

Black-Tailed Deer Are Almost Always found in dense forests and coastal woodlands in their native range along the Pacific Coast of North America from Alaska to Southern California, on many coastal islands, and west of the summit of the coastal and Cascade mountain ranges. At the eastern boundaries of its range, the blacktail might interbreed with the mule deer, its larger cousin, and hybridize.

Description, The blacktail is the smallest native deer in North America, with a subspecies, the Sitka blacktail, even smaller yet. The weight of a mature buck is rarely more than 190 pounds, but an individual blacktail of that weight is a truely Overweight With Muscle as well. Does can weigh upward of 120 pounds. The blacktail is characterized from the mule deer, as being the smaller and darker, and its tail carries a broad and long black stripe. Also,The rump area of the blacktail has a darker, smaller patch of white than does the mule deer. Blacktails are shier than other deer species. It quickly, and usually without hesitation, flees and hides when confronted from even long distances. Rather than try to prove individual dominance among a herd, single bucks live alongside each other and remain with does yearlong. However, buck rivalry takes place during the "rut" the breeding season that takes place from late October into early December.

Behavior, They rest and bed in dense low-growing grasses and shrubs, usually not far from transition areas between fields and forests. Some wildlife biologists have surveyed blacktails in their greatest numbers in areas recently burned or logged where grasses, herbs and berry vines are sprouting. such as, Azaleas, rhododendrons, roses and hostas are among their favorites, but it often seems there’s no end to what they will eat. The damage done to yard plants by a lone deer can be substantial. Several deer can Destroy a 2-acre landscape to waste. They most readily feed from near dusk to just after dawn in edge areas. They also feed along roadways, in cow pastures, in orchards and, when not disturbed, in home gardens, flowerbeds and landscaped yards where ornamental shrubs and trees are plentiful.

They prefer a variety of vegetable matter, fresh green leaves, twigs, lower branches of trees and various grasses. They are particularly fond of blackberry and raspberry vines, grapes, mistletoe, mushrooms and ferns. Some accounts have been published of then even eating the fruit of cactus. Because of their defense strategy of hiding rather than fleeing or fighting, blacktails historically are not as much a problem for gardeners and landscapers as are whitetails and mule deer and elk. However, blacktails will invade gardens and browse landscapers' ornamental shrubs and trees, especially at night. And in places where people feed blacktails, they readily lose their fear of people-even taking food directly out of hand -,and will not hesitate to enter nearby yards and gardens during daylight hours. When it comes to accessing urban food-scapes, blacktails are an amazingly efficient Also Known to be the cleverest Deer.

Their remarkable jumping ability allows them to clear fences as much as 9 feet high. They learn the domain and attitude of yard dogs, and some have even displayed an understanding of how far a tethered dog can range. And they communicate their learning to their brethren, especially fawns and yearlings. As a result, deer deterrents range wide across the horizon of the imagination. Deer are mostly color blind so any bright colors will also not act as a deterrent. Thus, numerous offensive products–both professionally and personally cooked up to protect ornamental shrubs, trees, flowerbeds and vegetable gardens are made to attack their tastebuds and their noses. Many temporarily turn deer away, but their cleverness eventually results in failed remedies.

Predators, Instead deer must be instilled with the fear of physical harm, which almost always naturally occurs with predators. Indeed, it is only the fear of death that effectively breaks their behavior, whether it’s in a yard or in the woods. To turn deer away from the foods they want, they must sense an assault upon their security. This is best done by taking advantage of their remarkable sense of smell for locating food and survival. Their nose will lead them to return over and over again to areas where food is tasty, abundant and safe to forage. Their nose will also alert deer to nearby danger. Disrupt their sense of security and you’ve achieved the primary factor for turning deer away from your valuable plants, gardens, shrubs and trees. Deer have good memories and learn from each other. When one deer is afraid to return to an area, other deer–including fawns–also will be reluctant to enter the area.

Majestic Elk

Scientific Classification
Kingdom-Animalia
Phylum-Chordata
Class-Mammalia
Order-Artiodactyla
Suborder-Ruminantia
Family-Cervidae
Subfamily-Cervinae
Genus-Cervus
Species-C. canadensis

The elk, or wapiti Cervus canadensis, is the second largest species of deer in the world, and one of the largest mammals in North America and eastern Asia. They are almost identical to red deer found in Europe, and were long believed to be subspecies of each other, though they have recently been determined to be distinct based on DNA evidence. In the deer family, only the moose, which is called an "elk" in Europe, is larger. Elk range in forest and forest-edge habitat, feeding on grasses, plants, leaves and bark. Although native to North America and eastern Asia, they have adapted well to countries where they have been introduced, including New Zealand and Argentina.

Their high level of adaptability poses a threat to endemic species and ecosystems where they have been introduced. Male elk have large antlers which are shed each year. Males engage in ritualized mating behaviors during the rut, including posturing, antler wrestling and bugling, a loud series of screams which establishes dominance over other males and attracts females. The bugle call is one of the most distinctive calls in nature. Elk are susceptible to a number of infectious diseases, some of which can be transmitted to livestock. Efforts to eliminate infectious diseases from elk populations, largely through vaccination, have had mixed success. Some cultures revere the elk as a spiritual force. In parts of Asia, antlers and their velvet are used in traditional medicines. Elk are hunted as a game species; the meat is leaner and higher in protein than beef or chicken.

Taxonomy, Cervus genus ancestors of elk first appear in the fossil record 12 million years ago, during the Pliocene in Eurasia, but do not appear in the North American fossil record until the later Pleistocene ice ages when they crossed the Bering land bridge. The extinct Irish Elk Megaloceros was not a member of the genus Cervus, but rather the largest member of the wider deer family Cervidae known from the fossil record. Until 2004, red deer and elk were considered to be one species, Cervus elaphus, based on fertile hybrids that have been produced in captivity. Recent DNA studies, conducted on hundreds of samples from red deer and elk subspecies as well as other species of the Cervus deer family, showed that elk or wapiti form a distinct species C. canadensis. The previous classification had over a dozen subspecies under the C. elaphus species designation; DNA evidence concludes that elk are more closely related to Thorold's deer and even sika deer than they are to the red deer. Though elk and red deer can produce fertile offspring in captivity, geographic isolation between the species in the wild and differences in mating behaviors indicate that reproduction between them outside a controlled environment would be unlikely.

Description, The elk is a large animal of the artiodactyle ungulate order, possessing an even number of toes on each foot, similar to those of camels, goats and cattle. It is a ruminant species, with a four-chambered stomach, and feeds on grasses, plants, leaves and bark. During the summer, elk eat almost constantly, consuming between 4.5 and 6.8 kg 10 to 15 lb daily. In North America, males are called bulls, and females are called cows. In Asia, stag and hind, respectively, are sometimes used instead. Elk are more than twice as heavy as mule deer and have a more reddish hue to their hair coloring, as well as large, buff colored rump patches and smaller tails. Moose are larger and darker than elk, bulls have distinctively different antlers and moose do not herd. Elk cows average 225 kg 500 lb, stand 1.3 m 4-1/2 ft at the shoulder, and are 2 m 6-1/2 ft from nose to tail. Bulls are some 25% larger than cows at maturity, weighing an average of 315 kg 650 lb, standing 1.5 m 5 ft at the shoulder and averaging 2.4 m 8 ft in length.

During the fall, Elk grow a thicker coat of hair, which helps to insulate them during the winter. Males, females and calves of Siberian and North American elk all grow thick neck manes; female and young Manchurian and Alashan wapitis do not. By early summer, the heavy winter coat has been shed, and elk are known to rub against trees and other objects to help remove hair from their bodies. All elk have large and clearly defined rump patches with short tails. They have different coloration based on the seasons and types of habitats, with gray or lighter coloration prevalent in the winter and a more reddish, darker coat in the summer. Subspecies living in arid climates tend to have lighter colored coats than do those living in forests. Most have lighter yellow-brown to orange-brown coats in contrast to dark brown hair on the head, neck, and legs during the summer. Forest adapted Manchurian and Alashan wapitis have darker reddish-brown coats with less contrast between the body coat and the rest of the body during the summer months. Calves are born spotted, as is common with many deer species, and they lose their spots by the end of summer. Adult Manchurian wapiti may retain a few orange spots on the back of their summer coats until they are older. This has also been observed in the forest-adapted European red deer.

Behavior, Adult elk usually stay in single-sex groups for most of the year. During the mating period known as the rut, mature bulls compete for the attentions of the cows and will try to defend females in their harem. Rival bulls challenge opponents by bellowing and by paralleling each other, walking back and forth. This allows potential combatants to assess the others antlers, body size and fighting prowess. If neither bull backs down, they engage in antler wrestling, and bulls sometimes sustain serious injuries. Bulls also dig holes in the ground, in which they urinate and roll their body. The urine soaks into their hair and gives them a distinct smell which attracts cows. Dominant bulls follow groups of cows during the rut, from August into early winter. A bull will defend his harem of 20 cows or more from competing bulls and predators. Only mature bulls have large harems and breeding success peaks at about eight years of age. Bulls between two to four years and over 11 years of age rarely have harems, and spend most of the rut on the periphery of larger harems.

Young and old bulls that do acquire a harem hold it later in the breeding season than do bulls in their prime. A bull with a harem rarely feeds and he may lose up to 20 percent of his body weight. Bulls that enter the rut in poor condition are less likely to make it through to the peak conception period or have the strength to survive the rigors of the oncoming winter. Bulls have a loud vocalization consisting of screams known as bugling, which can be heard for miles. Bugling is often associated with an adaptation to open environments such as parklands, meadows, and savannas, where sound can travel great distances. Females are attracted to the males that bugle more often and have the loudest call. Bugling is most common early and late in the day and is one of the most distinctive sounds in nature, akin to the howl of the gray wolf.

Migrations, The Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem elk herd numbers over 200,000 individuals and during the spring and fall, they take part in the longest elk migration in the continental U.S. Elk in the southern regions of Yellowstone National Park and in the surrounding National Forests migrate south towards the town of Jackson, Wyoming where they winter for up to six months on the National Elk Refuge. Conservationists there ensure the herd is well fed during the harsh winters. Many of the elk that reside in the northern sections of the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem migrate to lower altitudes in Montana, mainly to the north and west. As is true for many species of deer, especially those in mountainous regions, elk migrate into areas of higher altitude in the spring, following the retreating snows, and the opposite direction in the fall. Hunting pressure also impacts migration and movements. During the winter, they favor wooded areas and sheltered valleys for protection from the wind and availability of tree bark to eat. Roosevelt elk are generally non-migratory due to less seasonal variability of food sources.

Breeding & Lifecycle, Female elk have a short estrus cycle of only a day or two and matings usually involve a dozen or more attempts. By the fall of their second year, females can produce one and, very rarely, two offspring, though reproduction is most common when cows weigh at least 200 kg 450 lb. The gestation period is 240 to 262 days and the offspring weigh between 15 and 16 kg 33 to 35 lb. When the females are near to giving birth, they tend to isolate themselves from the main herd, and will remain isolated until the calf is large enough to escape predators. Calves are born spotted, as is common with many deer species, and they lose their spots by the end of summer. Manchurian wapiti may retain a few orange spots on the back of their summer coats until they are older. After two weeks, calves are able to join the herd and are fully weaned at two months of age. Elk calves weigh as much as an adult white-tailed deer by the time they are six months old. The offspring will remain with their mothers for almost a year, leaving about the time that the next season's offspring are produced. The gestation period is the same for all subspecies. Elk live 20 years or more in captivity but average 10 to 13 years in the wild. In some subspecies that suffer less predation, they may live an average of 15 years in the wild.

Predation, Male elk retain their antlers for more than half the year and are less likely to group with other males when they have antlers. Antlers provide a means of defense, as does a strong front-leg kick, which is performed by either sex if provoked. Once the antlers have been shed, bulls tend to form bachelor groups which allow them to work cooperatively at fending off predators. Herds tend to employ one or more scouts while the remaining members eat and rest. After the rut, females form large herds of up to 50 individuals. Newborn calves are kept close by a series of vocalizations; larger nurseries have an ongoing and constant chatter during the daytime hours. When approached by predators, the largest and most robust females may make a stand, using their front legs to kick at their attackers. Guttural grunts and posturing are used with great effectiveness with all but the most determined of predators. Aside from man, wolf and coyote packs and the solitary cougar, are the most likely predators, although brown, grizzly and black bears also prey on elk.  In the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem which includes Yellowstone National Park, bears are the most significant predators of calves. Major predators in Asia include the wolf, dhole, brown bear, siberian tiger, Amur leopard, and snow leopard. Eurasian lynx and wild boar sometimes prey on the Asian wapiti. Distribution, Modern subspecies are descended from elk that once inhabited Beringia, a steppe region between Asia and North America that connected the two continents during the Pleistocene.

Beringia provided a migratory route for numerous mammal species, including brown bear, caribou, and moose, as well as humans. As the Pleistocene came to an end, ocean levels began to rise; elk migrated southwards into Asia and North America. In North America they adapted to almost all ecosystems except for tundra, true deserts, and the gulf coast of the U.S. The elk of southern Siberia and central Asia were once more widespread but today are restricted to the mountain ranges west of Lake Baikal including the Sayan and Altai Mountains of Mongolia and the Tianshan region that borders Kyrgyzstan, Kazakhstan, and China's Xinjiang Province. The habitat of Siberian elk in Asia is similar to that of the Rocky Mountain subspecies in North America. Throughout their range, they live in forest and in forest edge habitat, similar to other deer species. In mountainous regions, they often dwell at higher elevations in summer, migrating down slope for winter. The highly adaptable elk also inhabit semi-deserts in North America, such as the Great Basin. Manchurian and Alashan wapiti are primarily forest dwellers and their smaller antler sizes is a likely adaptation to a forest environment.

Health issues, Brainworm Parelaphostrongylus tenuis is a parasitic nematode that has been known to affect the spinal cord and brain tissue of elk, leading to death. The nematode has a carrier in the white-tailed deer in which it normally has no ill effects. It is also carried by snails which can be inadvertently consumed by elk during grazing. Chronic Wasting Disease affects the brain tissue in elk, and has been detected throughout their range in North America. First documented in the late 1960s in mule deer, the disease has affected elk on game farms and in the wild in a number of regions. Elk that have contracted the disease begin to show weight loss, increased watering needs, disorientation and listlessness, and at an advanced stage the disease leads to death. The disease is similar to but not the same as Mad Cow Disease, and dangers to humans have been documented. In 2002, South Korea banned the importation of elk antler velvet due to concerns about Chronic Wasting Disease. Brucellosis occasionally affect elk in the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem, the only place in the U.S. where the disease is still known to exist. In domesticated cattle, brucellosis causes infertility, abortions and reduced milk production. It is transmitted to humans as undulant fever, producing flu-like symptoms which may last for years. Though bison are more likely to transmit the disease to other animals, elk inadvertently transmitted brucellosis to horses in Wyoming and cattle in Idaho. Researchers are attempting to eradicate the disease through vaccinations and herd management measures, which are expected to be successful.

Introduction, The Rocky Mountain elk subspecies has been reintroduced by hunter-conservation organizations in the Appalachian region of the eastern U.S., where the now extinct Eastern elk once lived After elk were reintroduced in the states of Kentucky, North Carolina and Tennessee, they migrated into the neighboring states of Virginia and West Virginia, and have established permanent populations there. Elk have also been reintroduced to a number of other states, including Pennsylvania, Michigan and Wisconsin. As of 1989, population figures for the Rocky Mountain subspecies were 782,500, and estimated numbers for all North American subspecies exceeded 1 million. Prior to the European colonization of North America, there were an estimated 10 million elk on the continent. Worldwide population of elk, counting those on farms and in the wild, is approximately 2 million. Outside their native habitat, elk and other deer species were introduced in areas that previously had few if any large native ungulates. Brought to these countries for hunting and ranching for meat, hides and antler velvet, they have proven highly adaptable and have often had an adverse impact on local ecosystems. Elk and red deer were introduced to Argentina and Chile in the early 20th century.

There they are now considered an invasive species, encroaching on Argentinian ecosystems where they compete for food with the indigenous Chilean Huemul and other herbivores This negative impact on native animal species has led the IUCN to identify the elk as one of the world's 100 worst invaders. Both elk and red deer have also been introduced to Ireland and Australia. The introduction of deer to New Zealand began in the middle of the 19th century, and current populations are primarily European red deer, with only 15 percent being elk. These deer have had an adverse impact on forest regeneration of some plant species, as they consume more palatable species which are replaced with those that are less favored by the elk. The long term impact will be an alteration of the types of plants and trees found, and in other animal and plant species dependent upon them. As in Chile and Argentina, the IUCN has declared that red deer and elk populations in New Zealand are an invasive species.

Cultural references, Elk have played an important role in the cultural history of a number of peoples. Pictograms and petroglyphs of elk were carved into cliffs thousands of years ago by the Anasazi of the southwestern U.S. More recent Native American tribes, including the Kootenai, Cree, Ojibwa and Pawnee, produced blankets and robes from elk hides. The elk was of particular importance to the Lakota, and played a spiritual role in their society. At birth, Lakota males were given an elk's tooth to promote a long life since that was seen as the last part of dead elk to rot away. The elk was seen as having strong sexual potency and young Lakota males who had dreamed of elk would have an image of the mythical representation of the elk on their "courting coats" as a sign of sexual prowess. The Lakota believed that the mythical or spiritual elk, not the physical one, was the teacher of men and the embodiment of strength, sexual prowess and courage. Neolithic petroglyphs from Asia depict antler-less female elk, which have been interpreted as symbolizing rebirth and sustenance. By the beginning of the Bronze Age, the elk is depicted less frequently in rock art, coinciding with a cultural transformation away from hunting.

Rocky Mountain Elk, Reach lengths of 7 to 9 1/2 feet, heights of 4 1/2 to 5 feet; males weigh 600 to 1,100 pounds, females 450 to 650, live 15 to 20 years. Color is brown to tan with darker head, neck, belly and legs, with a rump patch of light tan to yellowish. Elk Breed September through November, gestation 7 1/2 to 8 months, 1 to 2 calves each year born from May to July, usually late May to mid June. The tracks of the front hoof are 4 to 4 1/2 inches long, hind hoof slightly smaller; the hind hoof generally falls in or near the front hoof, dewclaw point marks may appear behind the hoofs in mud or snow.

Droppings, Are usually clumps in the spring and summer, and large pellets in the fall and winter. During the fall/rut the males rub trees and thrash brush and evergreens with their antlers, often make scrapes on dry ground with their antlers when they get up out of their beds, and make wallows with their antlers in muddy or wet areas. They often urinate in the scrape or wallow and urinate on themselves, then roll in the scrape and wallow express dominance and attract females. Males generally carry antlers of from 1 to 6 points on each side during their first year, 4 or more points during their second year, and 5 or more points after their second year; with the main beams getting heavier, longer and wider apart until the seventh to eight year, when the lengths of the tines may become shorter. The North American wapiti Cervus elaphus, or elk as it is often called in North America, is the second largest member of the deer family.

Wapiti, bulls grow to nearly 5 feet 1.5 meters in height at the shoulders and may weigh more than 750 pounds 340 kilograms. The cows are smaller. Wapiti are dark brown in the head and chest region and light brown on the rest of the body with a large white patch on the rump. They have huge antlers that may spread 5 feet across. Wapiti were once found throughout most of the United States but are now restricted to the western states and southern Canada. Their range includes Europe where they are called red deer, central Asia, Siberia, and northern and Western China. Wapiti roam in herds, moving from the mountains to the valleys in winter. During the mating season in the fall, fights between males are common. They challenge one another with a loud bellow. Two animals face each other from a distance of about 20 feet 6 meters, paw the ground, and then charge and crash their antlers together. Bellowing as they fight, they continue the struggle until one goes down. The loser usually survives but leaves the area. Occasionally the antlers of the fighters lock together so that neither can eat, and both animals die from starvation. In March the bulls lose their antlers, but they can still ward off predators with their sharp front hooves. In early summer each cow gives birth to one or two white-spotted calves.

Moose

Scientific Classification
Kingdom-Animalia
Phylum-Chordata
Class-Mammalia
Order-Artiodactyla
Family-Cervidae
Subfamily-Odocoilinae
Genus-Alces
Gray, 1821
Species-A. alces

The largest member of the deer family is the moose Alces alces, called elk in Europe. The bull, or male, stands as high as 7.7 feet 2.35 meters at the shoulder and may weigh more than 1,800 pounds 816 kilograms. The cow, or female, is about three fourths the size of the bull. The color of moose ranges from black to brown. Moose occur across Canada from New England to Alaska and extend down into Wyoming. They also are found from northern Europe to Mongolia. The bull moose has a large head with a broad muzzle that curves downward. Beneath his neck hangs a hairy fold of skin called a bell. The antlers of a moose are flattened and may spread 6.6 feet 2 meters across. The antlers are shed in winter, sprout again in spring, and reach full size by early summer. In late spring the cow gives birth to one or two calves that stay with her until the following spring. Moose occur in forested areas, particularly near water. They feed on willow tips, saplings, and bark. They wade along the shores and thrust their heads under water for mouthfuls of tender plants that grow on the bottom. Moose swim very well.

The species Alces alces is called the moose by North Americans a name derived from Eastern Abenaki moz or the elk by Europeans. Alces alces is the largest existing member of the deer family Cervidae, distinguished from the others by the palmate antlers of its males. These antlers are unique in shape, having a more cup-like shape as opposed to the common twig-like figuration of others in the deer family.It should be noted that in North America, the name elk is given to the second largest species of deer - an animal also called the wapiti.

Taxonomy, Traditionally the moose has been regarded as a single species, Alces alces, with several subspecies. Some recent sources, however, have promoted the North American race to be a fully separate species, Alces americanus, most notably Boyeskorov 1999. Most moose are grey or brown colored.

Habitat and Range, Moose are typical of boreal and mixed deciduous forests of the Northern Hemisphere in temperate to subarctic climates. In North America, that includes almost all of Canada, Alaska, much of New England, the upper Rocky Mountains, Northeastern Minnesota, and Michigan's Upper Peninsula and Isle Royale in Lake Superior. Small but present moose populations have been verified as far south as the mountains of Colorado. Moose have been successfully introduced on the island of Newfoundland in 1904 where they are now the dominant ungulate, and somewhat less successfully on Anticosti Island in the Gulf of St. Lawrence. Ten moose were also introduced in Fiordland, New Zealand in 1910, but they were thought to have died off. Nevertheless, there have been reported sightings that were thought to be false until moose hair samples were found by a New Zealand scientist in 2002.

Characteristics, Antlers The male moose's antlers arise as cylindrical beams projecting on each side at right angles to the middle line of the skull, which after a short distance divide in a fork-like manner. The lower prong of this fork may be either simple, or divided into two or three tines, with some flattening. In the North Siberian race of the elk Alces alces bedfordiae the posterior division of the main fork divides into three tines, with no distinct flattening. In the common elk Alces alces alces, on the other hand, this branch usually expands into a broad palmation, with one large tine at the base, and a number of smaller snags on the free border. There is, however, a Scandinavian breed of the common elk in which the antlers are simpler, and recall those of the East Siberian race. The palmation appears to be more marked in the North American race, the moose Alces alces americanus than in the typical Scandinavian elk.

The largest of all is the Alaskan race Alces alces gigas, which can stand over 2 m 6.5 ft in height, with a span across the antlers of 1.8 m 6 ft. The male moose will drop its antlers after mating season in order to conserve energy for the winter season. It will then regrow them in the spring. The antlers take about three to five months to grow. This makes their antlers one of the fastest growing organs in the world. The antlers initially have a layer of skin, which will shed off once fully grown. If a bull moose is ever castrated either due to accidental or chemical means he will quickly shed his current set of antlers and then immediately begin to grow a new set of misshapen and deformed antlers that he will wear the rest of his life without ever shedding again. The distinctive looking appendages (often referred to as "devil's antlers") are the source of several myths and legends among many groups of Inuit as well as several other tribes of indigenous peoples of North America.

Other characteristics, The great length of the legs gives the moose a decidedly lanky appearance. The muzzle is long and fleshy, with only a very small triangular naked patch below the nostrils. Males have a peculiar sac, known as a bell, hanging from the neck. Moose eat mostly young shoots and leaves of willow and birch, tree bark and mast the fallen nuts of forest trees in winter, and water plants such as Arnicus brucitus. These ruminants are often found feeding in wetlands and swamps. Moose are extremely strong swimmers and are known to dive underwater in lakes and ponds in order to pull up plants from the bottom. They are able to stay under water for a full minute before coming up for air. Their teeth resemble those of other ruminants such as deer, cows, sheep and goats. On each side of the lower jaw they have premolars and four front teeth, one of which is a transformed canine. In the upper jaw there are no front teeth, only a plate of horn against which the food is chewed. The usual stride of a moose is a shambling trot but, when pressed, they can break into a gallop and reach speeds of up to 55 km/h 34 mph. Male moose bulls normally weigh 540 to 720 kg 1200 to 1600 lbs and females Cows usually about 400 kg 880 lb.

The typical height is about 1.9 meters 6.2 feet at the shoulder. Calves weigh around 15 kg 33 lb at birth but quickly grow in size. Only males have antlers, often 160 cm 64 inches across and 20 kg 44 lb in weight with a broad, flattened palmate shape fringed in up to 30 tines. An Alaskan moose discovered in 1897 holds the record for the largest known modern deer; it was a male standing 2.34 m 7.7 feet at the shoulders and weighing 825 kg. Its antler spread was 199 cm 79 inches.

History, European rock drawings and cave paintings reveal that the elk or moose has been hunted since the stone age. Excavations in Alby, Sweden adjacent to the Stora Alvaret have yielded elk antlers in wooden hut remains from 6000 BC, indicating some of the earliest elk hunting in northern Europe. In Northern Scandinavia one can still find remains of trapping pits used for hunting elk. These pits, which can be up to 4 x 7 m wide and 2 m deep, would have been camouflaged with branches and leaves. They would have had steep sides lined with planks, making it impossible for the elk to escape once it fell in. The pits are normally found in large groups, crossing the elk's regular paths and stretching over several kilometres. Remains of wooden fences designed to guide the animals toward the pits have been found in bogs and peats. In Norway, an early example of these trapping devices has been dated to around 3700 BC. Trapping elk in pits is an extremely effective hunting method, and as early as the 16th century the Norwegian government tried to restrict their use. Nevertheless, the method was in use until the 19th century. The first written description of the elk is in Julius Cæsar's Commentarii de Bello Gallico, where it is described thus: "There are also animals which are called alces. The shape of these, and the varied color of their skins, is much like roes, but in size they surpass them a little and are without horns, and have legs without joints and ligatures; nor do they lie down for the purpose of rest, nor, if they have been thrown down by any accident, can they raise or lift themselves up.

Trees serve as beds to them; they lean themselves against them, and thus reclining only slightly, they take their rest; when the huntsmen have discovered from the footsteps of these animals whither they are accustomed to betake themselves, they either undermine all the trees at the roots, or cut into them so far that the upper part of the trees may appear to be left standing. When they have leant upon them, according to their habit, they knock down by their weight the unsupported trees, and fall down themselves along with them."

In chapter 16 of Pliny the Elder's Natural History from 77 AD the elk and an animal called achlis, which is presumably the same animal, are described thus: "There is, also, the elk, which strongly resembles our steers, except that it is distinguished by the length of the ears and of the neck. There is also the achlis, which is produced in the island of Scandinavia; it has never been seen in this city, although we have had descriptions of it from many persons; it is not unlike the elk, but has no joints in the hind leg. Hence, it never lies down, but reclines against a tree while it sleeps; it can only be taken by previously cutting into the tree, and thus laying a trap for it, as otherwise, it would escape through its swiftness.

Its upper lip is so extremely large, for which reason it is obliged to go backwards when grazing; otherwise, by moving onwards, the lip would get doubled up."  Dr. Valerius Geist, who emigrated to Canada from the Soviet Union wrote in his book Moose: Behavior, Ecology, Conservation published in 1999 by Voyageur Press of Stillwater, MN: "Those who care most passionately about moose are - paradoxically - hunters, in particular people who live in wilderness and rural communities and those who depend on moose for food. In Sweden, no fall menu is without a mouthwatering moose dish. The Swedes fence their highways to reduce moose fatalities and design moose-proof cars. Sweden is less than half as large as the Canadian province of British Columbia, but the annual take of moose in Sweden upward of 150,000 is twice that of the total moose harvest in North America. That is how much Swedes cherish their moose."

Domestication, Demostic of The moose was investigated in the Soviet Union before World War II. Early experiments were inconclusive, but with the creation of a moose farm at Pechora-Ilych Nature Reserve in 1949 a small-scale moose domestication program was started, involving attempts at selective breeding of animals based on their behavioral characteristics. Since 1963, the program has continued at Kostroma Moose Farm, which had a herd of 33 tame moose as of 2003. Although at this stage the farm is not expected to be a profit-making enterprise, it obtains some income from the sale of moose milk and from visiting tour groups. Its main value, however, is seen in the opportunities it offers for the research in the physiology and behavior of the moose, as well as in the insights it provides into the general principles of animal domestication.

Vehicle Collisions And Moose Warning Signs, A Moose's Body Structure, With a large heavy body suspended on long spindly legs, makes these animals particularly dangerous when hit by motor vehicles. Such collisions are often fatal for both the moose and motorist. This has led to the development of a vehicle test in Scandinavia referred to as the "moose test" Älgtest in Swedish, Elch Test in German. The term was invented by the Swedish motor magazine "Teknikens värld" for a test where the tested car needs to make a sharp S-turn at high speed. The term "moose test" came to common knowledge when Mercedes A-klasse badly failed the test and turned over. German reporters didn't see the relevance of the test, and the testers replied that that kind of maneuver was important when trying to avoid collisions with moose. The test was not referred to as moose test in Sweden prior to this incident, but simply as an evasion manoeuver test, intended to test the car's ability to perform an evasive manoeuver to avoid colliding with any obstacle suddenly occurring on the road.

Fun Facts, A moose can swim for up to two hours and as far as 12 miles.

Tycho Brahe 1546 to 1601, physicist and astronomer, had a pet moose that is said to have become drunk and tragicalyy died in a fall down the stairs of his castle.

Caribou

Scientific Classification
Kingdom-Animalia
Phylum-Chordata
Class-Mammalia
Order-Artiodactyla
Family-Cervidae
Subfamily-Odocoileinae
Genus-Rangifer
C.H. Smith, 1827
Species: R. tarandus

Name in North America for the genus Rangifer of deer from which the Old World reindeer was originally domesticated. Caribou are found in arctic and subarctic regions. They are the only deer in which both sexes have antlers. The broad hooves support the animal males may weigh over 300 lb/130 kg on boggy land or snow and have sharp edges that enable it to traverse rocky or frozen surfaces and to dig down to the grass and lichens on which it sometimes feeds. In North America there are two main types: the woodland caribou of the bogs and coniferous forests from Newfoundland to British Columbia, with palmate antlers up to 4 ft 120 cm wide; and the barren-ground caribou of the tundra of Alaska and N Canada, which has many-branched, slender antlers and which may undertake mass migrations in search of food. Caribou are classified in the phylum Chordata, subphylum Vertebrata, class Mammalia, order Artiodactyla, family Cervidae.

Arctic deer Rangifer tarandus of the tundra, taiga, and forests, native to North America and northern Eurasia from Scandinavia to eastern Siberia. Both sexes have antlers. Caribou stand 2.3 to 4.6 ft 0.7 to 1.4 m tall at the shoulder and weigh up to 660 lbs 300 kg. Domesticated races are about the size of donkeys. They are usually grayish or brownish with lighter underparts but may be whitish or nearly black. Their herds are famous for their seasonal migration between summer and winter ranges. Their staple winter food is a lichen, popularly called reindeer moss, which they reach by scraping the snow away with their feet. In summer they also eat grasses and saplings.

North American reindeer Rangifer tarandus grouped into two subspecies, the barren ground caribou and woodland caribou. The former is only found in Arctic parts of North America and has long, slightly curved antlers. The woodland caribou roams the forest districts of Canada and has shorter, branched antlers. The caribou has never been domesticated, although it has been hunted continuously since Palaeo-Indian times and many communities have subsisted almost exclusively from it.

The caribou is in the order of Artioldactyl is a member of the deer family. It looks like a large mule deer or small elk with soft hollow hair, long legs, large hooves and large antlers. In Alaska, 97 to 99 percent of the females have antlers as well as the males. Both male and female caribou have blunt Muzzles with hair all the way down to the muzzle. They are not too shy unless in common hunting area, they are capable of sleeping in water, and are herd animals that are always on the move. This tamable animal likes to eat moss and lay in the shade, but they hate the nasty flies that bite them, and lay their eggs in their back. The flies are one reason the caribou are always on the move, the other reason is that caribou eat moss called Linchen(lie-Ken) that takes years to grow back. Breeding also takes Place in Fall. Caribou Rangifer tarandus, or reindeer as they are sometimes called, inhabit the far northern regions of North America, Europe, and Asia.

An almost pure-white subspecies lives in northern Greenland. In North America the woodland caribou is found in Canada and Alaska in swampy forest habitats. Farther north, the northern, or barren ground, caribou roam the desolate Arctic tundra. Their original range included northern Maine and Minnesota as well as the Rocky Mountain region of Idaho and Wyoming. The last natural band south of Canada disappeared from Isle Royale, Michigan, in the 1920s. Caribou move continually, migrating in herds that travel south for winter and north in summer. In the warmer months they can be found in the farthest northern reaches of the Arctic tundra. Caribou have thicker bodies and shorter legs than do most deer. Their hooves are broad. Their coats are brown. They have white tails, necks, and sides. The colors vary with the seasons, as do those of many other deer, becoming lighter in color during winter. Those in the northernmost parts of their range may be almost white.

Both sexes of caribou have large irregularly branching antlers, though those of the female are somewhat smaller and more slender. The males also reach larger sizes, with some reaching weights of more than 700 pounds 318 kilograms and shoulder heights of up to 4.6 feet 1.4 meters. Caribou eat grasses and browse on low-lying vegetation. They are noted for consuming large quantities of a lichen called reindeer moss that grows in the tundra regions. When alarmed, caribou break into a clumsy gallop, changing to a steady trot that carries them across the tundra. Their large, spreading hooves, with sharp cup-shaped edges, give them a firm footing on the soft, mucky surface of their summer homes and on winter ice and snow. Caribou are the most domesticated of the deer.  In the region of Lapland in northern Europe, they are kept for milk and meat and for pulling sleds over the snow. Their hides furnish clothing, blankets, and harnesses.

Size, Caribou are generaly 4 to 6 feet Long & 400+ Pounds. The color Depends on the Environment they live in. Usually Very Dark Brown witch Grey in those brown Area's. The Chest Usually has a White Blotch. Antlers can Grow Over 3 Feet either Straight up Both Up And to the Sides. Favortie foods-most often eaten is Linchen and moss even Leaves from trees and Moss.

Range, through the cold artic lands and forest in russia, to alsaka, also they have been know to be preditized by wolves and anything thats Hungrey about 2 feet in length, and 1 foot tall, will literaly be on its Tail to kill them. The caribou eat food under the snow, to get at it the caribou must shovel the snow, With their large shovel sized antler's right above their nose. They nod Their head and shove The snow out of the way like a horse would. The caribou can get cut and bruised. The worse consequence is it’s horns can lock and the caribou not be able to unlock their horns so they will starve. Even though the caribou is color blind, the caribou will follow the movements and charge the flag you can try this, but don't expect them to run away from you after Teasing them. They can & will attack their own Enemies, like other animals would do for survival. The laplanders herd the caribou so that they can have the tender caribou meat and warm hide. The hide is often made into blankets, clothing and shelter. They use the antlers and bones for toys, tools and weapons. Caribou eat large quantities of food to increase their internal heat production. Also to conserve heat the caribou have hollow hairs rooted in a thick layer of fat. They also prevent heat loss from their thin, long legs by having two circulation systems. The circulation through the legs is up to 50 degrees colder than the circulation system for the rest of their body.

A Ruminant, rangifer tarandus, of the deer family, cervidae. reindeer inhabit the arctic region and have a cir-cumpolar distribution. They have been domesticated for centuries and are economically important to the Laplanders, who use them as draft animals as well as for their skins, flesh, and milk. Both sexes have antlers, a characteristic peculiar to this deer species. Although their senses of sight and hearing are not sharp, their sense of smell is quite keen. The hooves are round and broad, giving the animal stable footing in snow and on ice. In the wild, they are the most migratory of all deer, traveling in large herds in search of food during the winter months. The rutting season begins during the autumn migrations; fawns are born during the spring. See also Artiodactyla; Deer.

Large four hoofed mammal Rangifer tarandus that generally roams in large herds over the Arctic and tundra regions of the northern hemisphere. Archaeological evidence from the middle palaeolithic through to modern times shows that hunting communities reliant on this species as a source of food and materials are part of an extremely long-lived tradition. Reindeer were also used domestically to draw sledges and as a source of milk.

Ruminant mammal, genus rangifer, of the deer family, found in arctic and subarctic regions of Eurasia and North America. It is the only deer in which both sexes have antlers. The Eurasian reindeer, Rangifer tarandus, is a small deer, the male standing about 4 ft 120 cm high at the shoulder and weighing about 250 lb 113 kg, but it is extremely strong and has great powers of endurance. A reindeer can travel 40 mi 64 km a day, pulling twice its own weight on a sled. Reindeer have long fur, light brown in summer and whitish in winter, with dense woolly undercoats. The antlers are many pronged, with characteristically curved main stems that sweep back and up from the forehead, then turn forward. The hooves are broad and rounded and in winter become concave, providing a good grip on icy ground. Reindeer are gregarious and migratory, they travel hundreds of miles between their summer and winter grounds in herds of up to 200,000 animals.

They feed on a variety of plant matter, particularly grasses in summer and lichen in winter. Reindeer have been hunted for perhaps 30,000 years. They have been domesticated for many centuries in Lapland, N Siberia, and Mongolia, where they may be used for meat, milk, clothing, and transportation. They are used both to pull sleds and to carry burdens and riders. The Laplanders until recently were completely dependent upon the reindeer for their livelihood and followed the herds on their annual migrations. Reindeer living in a wild state in Eurasia are probably descended in part from domesticated strains. The wild reindeer of North America, called caribou, are larger than, but otherwise quite similar to, the Eurasian species. They have never been domesticated. Domesticated reindeer were introduced into Alaska from Siberia in the 1890s and became essential to the economy of the Alaskan Eskimo. Herds were established in Canada in the 1930s. Reindeer are classified in the phylum Chordata, subphylum Vertebrata, class Mammalia, order Artiodactyla, family Cervidae.

Rangifer tarandus, the large, wild ruminant of Christmas mythology, a mirror image of the North American caribou except that the latter cannot be domesticated whereas reindeer adapt easily. Large brown animals with a white buttock patch and lower parts, large antlers in both male and female.

The Reindeer, Known as caribou when wild in North America, is an Arctic and Subarctic-dwelling deer (Rangifer tarandus).

Habitat, The reindeer is distributed throughout a number of northern locales. Reindeer are found in northern Scandinavia; at Spitsbergen; in European parts of russia including northern russia and novaya zemlya; in the asian parts of russia; northern mongolia; northeastern china to the pacific ocean; in north america where it is called the caribou; on greenland, canada and alaska. Until the early 19th century it still occurred in southern Idaho. In 1952 reindeer were reintroduced to Scotland, as the natural stock had become extinct, probably in the 10th century.

Domesticated reindeer are mostly found in northern Scandinavia and Russia, and wild reindeer are mostly found in Norway, North America, Greenland and Iceland where they were introduced by humans in the 18th century. The last wild reindeer in Europe are found in portions of southern Norway. The southern boundary of the species' natural range is approximately at 62° north latitude. A few reindeer from Norway were introduced to the South Atlantic island of South Georgia in the beginning of the 20th century. Today there are two distinct herds still thriving there, permanently separated by glaciers. Their total numbers are no more than a few thousand. The flag and the coat of arms of the territory contain an image of a reindeer.

Anatomyn, The weight of a female varies between 60 and 170 kg 132 - 375 lb. In some subspecies of reindeer, the male is slightly larger; in others, the male can weigh up to 300 kg 661 lb. Both sexes grow antlers, which in the Scandinavian variety for old males fall off in December, for young males in the early spring, and for females, summer. The antlers typically have two separate groups of points, a lower and upper. Domesticated reindeer are shorter-legged and heavier than their wild counterparts. The caribou of North America can run at speeds up to 80 km/h 50 MPH and may travel 5,000 km 3,000 mi in a year. Reindeer are ruminants, having a four-chambered stomach. They mainly eat lichens in winter, especially reindeer moss. However, they also eat the leaves of willows and birches, as well as sedges and grasses.

There is some evidence to suggest that on occasion they will also feed on lemmings. arctic char and bird eggs Reindeer have specialized noses featuring nasal turbinate bones that dramatically increase the surface area within the nostrils. Incoming cold air is warmed by the animal's body heat before entering the lungs, and water is condensed from the expired air and captured before the deer's breath is exhaled, used to moisten dry incoming air and possibly absorbed into the blood through the mucous membranes. Reindeer hooves adapt to the season: in the summer, when the tundra is soft and wet, the footpads become spongy and provide extra traction. In the winter, the pads shrink and tighten, exposing the rim of the hoof which cuts into the ice and crusted snow to keep the animal from slipping. This also enables them to dig down an activity known as "cratering through the snow to their favorite food, a lichen known as reindeer moss. The reindeer coat has two layers of fur, a dense woolly undercoat and longer-haired overcoat consisting of hollow, air-filled hairs. A caribou or reindeer swims easily and fast; migrating herds will not hesitate to swim across a large lake or broad river.

Population, In the wild, most caribou migrate in large herds between their birthing habitat and their winter habitat. Their wide hooves help the animals move through snow and tundra; they also help propel the animal when it swims. About 1 million live in Alaska, and a comparable number live in northern Canada. There are an estimated 5 million reindeer in Eurasia, mainly semi-domesticated. The last remaining European herds of the genetic wild reindeer of the subspecies tarandus are found in central Norway, mainly in the mountainous areas of the Rondane National Park, Dovrefjell-Sunndalsfjella. And that the reindeer in Rondane and Dovrefjell is of Beringia origin, other wild Norwegian reindeer are of European origin and have interbred with domesticated reindeer to a various extent, the reindeer in Hardangervidda and Setesdalsheiane only to a limited extent. Some areas, such as Filefjell, have populations of reindeer that have been herded in the past but are now left free. Scandinavian domesticated reindeer are supposed to be a mixture of the two subspecies tarandus and fennicus - mountain and Finnish woodland reindeer. Males usually split apart from the group and become solitary, while the remaining herd consists mostly of females, usually a matriarchy.

Diseases And Threats, Natural threats to reindeer include avalanches and predators such as wolves, wolverines, lynxes, and bears. Golden Eagles may be seen to kill calves up to 1/2 year by using their talons to puncture their lungs. Parasites include warble flies, mosquitoes, ticks and nose bot flies. Roundworms, tapeworms, meningeal worms Paralaphostrongylus tenius and sarcocystis can also afflict reindeer. In some Canadian provinces, caribou are commonly infected with giant liver fluke Fascioloides magna. Diseases include brucellosis, foot rot, and keratitis white-eye, an infection of the eye, and sarcocystosis. Wild reindeer are considered to be very vulnerable to human disturbance, especially the last two months before and during the calving period in late May (this varies some weeks between different areas). In Canada, the woodland caribou is under threat from extensive logging operations. Because the caribou need the boreal forest to survive, the destruction of this habitat has put this animal at risk of extinction. Logging and logging roads also attract deer and deer diseases and moose, which brings in predators such as hunters, wolves and bears. In May 2002, the Canadian Species at Risk Act listed the Atlantic-Gaspésie population of Woodland Caribou as endangered.

Predation, Hunting Reindeer hunting by humans has a very long history and caribou/wild reindeer "may well be the species of single greatest importance in the entire anthropological literature on hunting." Humans started hunting reindeer in the Mesolithic and Neolithic periods and humans are today the main predator in many areas. Norway and Greenland have unbroken traditions of hunting wild reindeer from the ice age until the present day. In the non-forested mountains of central Norway, such as Jotunheimen, it is still possible to find remains of stone built trapping pits, guiding fences and bow rests, built especially for hunting reindeer. These can, with some certainty, be dated to the Migration Period although it is not unlikely that they have been in use since the Stone Age. In absence of other great predators in significant populations, hunting is today a necessary means to control stocks to prevent overgrazing and eventually mass death from starvation. Norway is now preparing to apply for nomination as a World Heritage Site for areas with traces and traditions of reindeer hunting in Central Sørlandet (Southern Norway). Wild caribou are still hunted in North America and Greenland. In the traditional lifestyle of the Inuit people, Northern First Nations people, Alaska Natives, and the Kalaallit of Greenland, the caribou is an important source of food, clothing, shelter and tools.

Reindeer Husbandry, Reindeer have been herded for centuries by several Arctic people including the Sami and the Nenets. They are raised for their meat, hides, antlers, and especially formerly also for milk and transportation. Reindeer are not considered fully domesticated, as they generally roam free on pasture grounds. In traditional nomadic herding reindeer herders migrate with their herds between coast and inland areas according to an annual migration route, and herds are keenly tended. However, reindeer have never been bred in captivity, though they were tamed for milking as well as for use as draught animals or beasts of burden. The use of reindeer as semi-domesticated livestock in Alaska was introduced in the late 1800s by Sheldon Jackson as a means of providing a livelihood for Native peoples there. A regular mail run in Wales, Alaska used a sleigh drawn by reindeer. In Alaska, reindeer herders use satellite telemetry to track their herds, using online maps and databases to chart the herd's progress.

Economy, The reindeer has or has had an important economic role for all circumpolar peoples, including the Sami, Nenets, Khants, Evenks, Yukaghirs, Chukchi and Koryaks in Eurasia. It is believed that domestication started between Bronze Age-Iron Age. Siberian deer-owners also use the reindeer to ride on. Siberian reindeer are larger than their Scandinavian relatives. For breeders, a single owner may own hundreds or even thousands of animals. The numbers of Russian herders have been drastically reduced since the fall of the Soviet Union. The fur and meat is sold, which is an important source of income. Reindeer were introduced into Alaska near the end of the 19th century; they interbreed with native caribou subspecies there. Reindeer herders on the Seward Peninsula have experienced significant losses to their herds from animals such as wolves following the wild caribou during their migrations. Reindeer meat is popular in the Scandinavian countries. Reindeer meatballs are sold canned. Sautéed reindeer is the best-known dish in Lapland. In Alaska, reindeer sausage is sold locally to supermarkets and grocery stores. Reindeer antler is powdered and sold as an aphrodisiac, nutritional or medicinal supplement to Asian markets.

History, The first written description of reindeer is in Julius Caesar's Commentarii de Bello Gallico chapter 6.26 from the 1st century BC. Here, it is described: There is an ox shaped like a stag. In the middle of its forehead a single horn grows between its ears, taller and straighter than the animal horns with which we are familiar. At the top this horn spreads out like the palm of a hand or the branches of a tree. The females are of the same form as the males, and their horns are the same shape and size.

Local Names, The name Caribou comes from Mi'kmaq qalipu, meaning "snow-shoveler", referring to its habit of pawing through the snow for food. In Inuktitut the caribou is known by the name tuttuk Labrador dialect.

Zebra

Body Length-7.3 ft
Shoulder Height-4 to 4.3 ft
Tail Length-20 inches
Weight-572 to 814 lb
Kingdom-Animalia
Phylum-Chordata
Class-Mammalia
Order-Perissodactyla
Family-Equidae
Genus-Equus
Subgenus-Hippotigris

The name mountain zebra is very appropriate, these animals are excellent rock climbers and are much more sure-footed on steep or rugged surfaces than their plains relatives. A distinct ierarchy is maintained within a breeding band, with the dominant adult stallion responsible for defending the herd. Breeding groups use a home range which varies from 3.1 to 20 square kilometers in area. These home ranges overlap among groups, with no evidence of territoriality. Adult stallions may become aggressive if two bands meet, although these may also join temporarily into a larger group, rarely exceeding 30 animals in size. Vocalizations consist of a high-pitched alarm call, and a squeal indicating submission. Hartmann's zebras have broad black stripes on an off-white body.

The stripes extend down the legs to narrow hooves, but do not meet on the belly. These animals stand from 118 to 132 centimeters 46 to 52 in. high. This subspecies seeks shade and rests during the hottest parts of the day and has been demonstrated to orient its body with respect to the sun. At midday zebras present the least amount and lightest parts of their bodies to the direct rays of the sun, there by decreasing potential heat load. The vocalizations of the Hartmann's zebra are similar to the neigh of a horse.

Three species belonging to the family Equidae and indigenous to Africa. These animals are odd-toed ungulates order Perissodactyla which are monodactyl; that is, the middle digit is functional while the second and fourth digits are vestigial. The striped coat is considered to be an example of protective coloration since they live on open plains. Zebras are sociable and graze with other animals, such as deer, gnu, and ostriches. The gestation period is 13 months and a single young is born. The maximum life-span is 30 years. See also Perissodactyla. Any of three species of black-and-white-striped equines that subsist almost entirely on grass. Zebras stand 47 to 55 inches. 120 to 140 cm tall. The Burchell's zebra, or bonte quagga Equus quagga, of eastern and southern African grasslands, has wide, widely spaced stripes. Grevy's zebra E. grevyi, of arid areas in Kenya, Ethiopia, and Somalia, has narrow, closely spaced stripes and a white belly. The small mountain zebra E. zebra, of dry upland plains in Namibia and western South Africa, has a gridlike pattern on the rump. Small zebra groups consisting of a stallion and several mares and foals may coalesce into large herds but retain their identity.

Herbivorous hoofed African mammal of the genus Equus, which also includes the horse and the ass. It is distinguished by its striking pattern of black or dark brown stripes alternating with white. In size and body form it is intermediate between the larger horse and the smaller ass. It has a heavy head, stout body, short, stiff mane, and tufted tail. There are three living zebra species; a fourth species, the quagga, became extinct in the late 19th cent. Most zebras inhabit open plains or brush country, while mountain zebras favor rocky hillsides. Zebra herds on the Serengeti of E Africa can be as large as 200,000 individuals, but all are organized in family groups led by a stallion. The plains zebras usually mix with other grazing animals, such as wildebeest and antelopes. They are swift runners, achieving speeds of up to 40 mph. Some authorities believe that the stripes evolved as visual identification to reinforce social bonds with other zebras, rather than for disguise or insect protection. The zebra's natural enemies are the lion and the leopard. The plains zebra, Equus burchelli, is found throughout Africa S of the Sahara. It stands about 4 ft 120 cm tall at the shoulder and has small ears. It has very broad stripes, which vary greatly in their pattern among the several races of the species, as well as among individuals of the same race. Grevy's zebra, E. grevyii, is a large zebra found in E Africa. It stands 41/2 to 5 ft 140 to 150 cm at the shoulder and weighs about 600 lb 270 kg. It has large, rounded ears and numerous very narrow stripes. Most distinctive is the mountain zebra, E. zebra, with a donkeylike build, long ears, and a characteristic stripe pattern. Unlike any other member of the genus Equus, its throat has a dewlap. One race of the mountain species, Hartmann's zebra, found in the arid mountains and coastal plains of SW Africa, increased in numbers in the 1980s to an estimated 15,000 from about 7,000 in 1967. The other race, the endangered Cape mountain zebra, is rarely found outside a protected area in South Africa. Zebras have been hunted extensively for their flesh and skins, but the plains zebra and Grevy's zebra are still numerous. Zebras have been crossed with horses in an attempt to produce a draft animal, but the offspring have proved sterile and unreliable. Zebras are classified in the phylum Chordata, subphylum Vertebrata, class Mammalia, order Perissodactyla, family Equidae.

The Zebra is a member of the horse family, native to eastern and southern Africa. They are best known for their distinctive white and black stripes which come in different patterns unique to each individual. There are four species of zebra. The Plains zebra Equus quagga, Grevy's zebra Equus grevyi, Cape Mountain zebra Equus zebra and the Hartmann's Mountain zebra Equus hartmannae. They can be found an a variety of habitats, such as grasslands, savanna, woodlands, thorny scrublands, mountains and coastal hills.

Evolution, Zebras were the second species to diverge from the earliest proto-horses, after the asses, around 4 million years ago. The Grevy's zebra is believed to have been the first zebra species to emerge. Zebras might have lived in North America in prehistoric times. Fossils of an ancient horselike animal were discovered in the Hagerman Fossil Beds National Monument in Hagerman, Idaho. It was named the Hagerman Horse with a scientific name of Equus simplicidens. There is some debate among paleontologists on whether the animal was a horse or a bona-fide zebra. While the animal's overall anatomy seems to be more horselike, its skull and teeth indicate that it was more closely related to the Grevy's Zebra. Thus it is also called the American zebra or Hagerman Zebra.

Description, Zebras are black or dark with white stripes and their bellies have a large white blotch for camouflage purposes. Some zebras have brown "shadow stripes" inbetween the white and black coloring. It is believed that zebras have a dark background for the following three reasons: 1 white equids would not survive well in the African plains or forests; 2 The quagga, an extinct Plains zebra subspecies, had the zebra striping pattern in the front of the animal, but had a dark rump; 3 when the region between the pigmented bands becomes too wide, secondary stripes emerge, as if suppression was weakening. The fact that some zebras have pure white bellies and legs is not very strong evidence for a white background, since many animals of different colors have white or light colored bellies and legs The stripes are typically vertical on the head, neck, forequarters, and main body, with horizontal stripes at the rear and on the legs of the animal. The "zebra crossing" is named after the zebra's white and black stripes. Some zoologists believe that the stripes act as a camouflage mechanism. This is accomplished in several ways. First, the vertical striping helps the zebra hide in grass. While seeming absurd at first glance considering that grass is neither white nor black, it is supposed to be effective against the zebra's main predator, the lion, which is colour blind.

Theoretically a zebra standing still in tall grass may not be noticed at all by a lion. Additionally, since zebras are herd animals, the stripes may help to confuse predators a number of zebras standing or moving close together may appear as one large animal, making it more difficult for the lion to pick out any single zebra to attack. A herd of zebras scattering to avoid a predator will also represent to that predator a confused mass of vertical stripes travelling in multiple directions making it difficult for the predator to track an individual visually as it separates from its herdmates, although biologists have never observed lions appearing confused by zebra stripes. Stripes are also believed to play a role in sexual attractions, with slight variations of the pattern allowing the animals to distinguish between individuals. A more recent theory, supported by experiment, posits that the disruptive colouration is also an effective means of confusing the visual system of the blood-sucking tsetse fly. Alternative theories include that the stripes coincide with fat patterning beneath the skin, serving as a thermoregulatory mechanism for the zebra, and that wounds sustained disrupt the striping pattern to clearly indicate the fitness of the animal to potential mates.

Scencsory Organs, In addition to eyesight and hearing, zebra have an acute sense of smell and taste.

Eye Sight, Zebras have excellent eyesight with binocular-like vision.  It is believed that they can see in color. Like most ungulates the zebra has its eyes on the sides of its head, giving it a wide field of view. Zebras also have night vision although it's not as advanced as that of most of their predators but their hearing compensates. Gait Like Horses, zebras walk, trot, canter and gallop. They are generally slower than horses but their great stamina helps them outpace predators, especially lions who get tired rather quickly. When chased, a zebra will zig-zag from side to side making it more difficult for the predator. When cornered the zebra will rear up and kick its attacker. A kick from a zebra can be fatal. Zebras will bite their attackers as well. A zebra can run at atleast 60kmph it is thought if they can stay ahead of a lion for 6 seconds or more they're most likely going to escape.

Hearing, Zebras have great hearing, and tend to have larger, rounder ears than horses. Like horses and other ungulates, zebra can turn their ears in almost any direction. Ear movement can also signify the zebra's mood. When a zebra is in a calm or friendly mood, its ears stand erect. When it is frightened, its ears are pushed forward. When angry, the ears are pulled backward.

Behavior, Like most members of the horse family, zebras are highly sociable. Their social structure, however, depends on the species. Mountain zebras and Plains zebras live in groups consisting of one stallion with up to six mares and their foals. A stallion forms a harem by abducting young mares from their families. When a mare reaches sexual maturity she will exhibit the estrous posture which invites the males. However she is usually not ready for mating at this point and will hide in her family group. Her father has to chase off stallions attempting to abduct her. Eventually a stallion will be able defeat the father and include the mare into his harem. A stallion will defend his group from bachelor males. When challenged, the stallion would issue a warning to the invader by rubbing nose or shoulder with him. If the warning is not heeded, a fight breaks out. Zebra fights often become very violent, with the animals biting at each other's necks or legs and kicking. While stallions may come and go, the mares stay together for life. They exist in a hierarchy with the alpha female being the first to mate with the stallion and being the one to lead the group. Unlike the other zebra species, Grevy's zebras do not have permanent social bonds. A group of these zebras rarely stays together for more than a few months. The foals stay with their mother, while the adult male lives alone. Like horses, zebras sleep standing up and only sleep when neighbors are around to warn them of predators. When attacked by packs of hyenas or wild dogs, a Plains zebra group will huddle together with the foals in the middle while the stallion tries to ward them off. Zebra groups often come together in large herds and migrate together along with other species such as Blue Wildebeests. Zebras communicate with each other with high-pitched barks and brays.

Food, Zebras are very adaptable grazers. They feed mainly on grasses but will also eat shrubs, herbs, twigs, leaves and bark. Plains zebras are pioneer grazers and are the first to eat at well-vegetated areas. After the area is mowed down by the zebras, other grazers follow.

Breeding, Like most animal species, female zebras mature earlier than the males and a mare may have her first foal by the age of three. Males are not able to breed until the age of five or six. Mares may give birth to one foal every twelve months. She nurses the foal for up to a year. Like horses, zebras are able to stand, walk and suckle shortly after they're born. A zebra foal is brown and white instead of black and white at birth. Plains and Mountain zebra foals are protected by their mother as well as the head stallion and the other mares in their group. Grevy’s zebra foals have only their mother. Even with parental protection up to 50% of zebra foals are taken by predation, disease and starvation each year. They are food to a range of predators. Adults are hunted by just lions, hyenas can’t take adult zebra due to their kicks and bites so they prefer foals or injured zebra same applies to wild dogs, cheetahs, Nile crocodiles and leopards but zebra are protective of the young and the predators will have to go through them 1st so they’ll rather go and find something easier like a wildebeest or impala rather then take a risk of injury, hence the reason why most predators are called opportunistic.

Grevy's Zebra Equus grevyi is the Largest type, with an erect mane, and a long, narrow head making it appear rather mule-like. It is an inhabitant of the semi-arid grasslands of Ethiopia and northern Kenya. The Grevy's Zebra is one of the rarest species of zebra around today, and is classified as endangered. Although zebra species may have overlapping ranges, they do not interbreed. This held true even when the Quagga and Burchell's race of Plains Zebra shared the same area. According to Dorcas McClintock in "A Natural History Of Zebras," Grevy's zebra has 46 chromosomes; plains zebras have 44 chromosomes and mountain zebras have 32 chromosomes. In captivity, Plains Zebras have been crossed with mountain zebras. The hybrid foals lacked a dewlap and resembled the Plains Zebra apart from their larger ears and their hindquarters pattern. Attempts to breed a Grevy's zebra stallion to Mountain Zebra mares resulted in a high rate of miscarriage.

Tamed by Man, Attempts have been made to train zebras for riding since they have better resistance than horses to African diseases. However most of these attempts failed, due to the zebra's more unpredictable nature and tendency to panic under stress. For this reason, zebra-mules or zebroids crosses between any species of zebra and a horse, pony, donkey or ass are preferred over pure-bred zebras. In England, the zoological collector Lord Rothschild frequently used zebras to draw a carriage. In 1907, Rosendo Ribeiro, the first doctor in Nairobi, Kenya, used a riding zebra for house-calls. Captain Horace Hayes, in "Points of the Horse" circa 1899 compared the usefulness of different zebra species. Hayes saddled and bridled a Mountain Zebra in less than one hour, but was unable to give it a "mouth" during the two days it was in his possession. He noted that the zebra's neck was so stiff and strong that he was unable to bend it in any direction. Although he taught it to do what he wanted in a circus ring, when he took it outdoors he was unable to control it. He found the Burchell's Zebra easy to break in and considered it ideal for domestication, as it was also immune to the bite of the tsetse fly. He considered the quagga well-suited to domestication due to being stronger, more docile and more horse-like than other zebras.

Conservation & Monitoring, Modern man have had great impact on the zebra population since the 19th century. Zebras were, and still are, hunted mainly for their skins. The Cape mountain zebra was hunted to near extinction with less than 100 individuals by the 1930s. However the population has increased to about 700 due to conservation efforts. Both Mountain zebra species are currently protected in national parks but are still endangered. The Grevy's zebra is also endangered. Hunting and competition from livestock have greatly decreased their population. Because of the population's small size, environmental hazards, such as drought, are capable of easily affecting the entire species. Plains zebras are much more numerous and have a healthy population. Nevertheless they too are threatened by hunting and habitat change from farming. One subspecies, the quagga, is now extinct.

Lions

Lion are the largest predator in Africa with male lions weighing an average of 420lbs and standing some 4 feet high at the shoulder. Females are slightly shorter and considerably slimmer in build, weighing an average of 275lbs. Males are characterised by a large bushy mane around the throat, which, in some populations may extend right down the chest and belly. It is usually a tawny colour, somewhat darker than the rest of the coat, but in many populations may appear almost black. Although no subspecies are officially recognised, there is considerable variation, particularly in coat and mane colour and form, depending on locality. Males dwelling in thick thorn scrub are usually virtually maneless, while in some areas of the Kalahari the coat may be so pale as to be almost white. Lion are also the only social cats.

They live in prides varying from 5 to 30 in numbers pride size is dependent upon food availability, terrain and hunting pressure, and co-operate in hunting. The lionesses, who tend to stay in the pride into which they are born, are responsible for most of the hunting effort within the pride. The pride male changes periodically, and his function within the pride is largely confined to breeding and protecting kills from hyaenas, or helping the pride rob other predators of their kills. There is a complex social organisation within the pride, and communal care of the cubs. One feature of lion social behaviour that has weighed against them under hunting pressure, is that when a new male takes over the pride, he kills off all the cubs from the previous Pride Lion. This immediately brings the females into oestrus again, and means that the new pride male doesn’t have to look after someone else’s cubs, but in an environment of heavy hunting pressure, the turn over in pride males can easily be sufficiently high so as to prevent any cubs from reaching maturity.

Lions are predominantly nocturnal hunters, and research has shown that hunts that occur when there is no or little moon have a 62% higher success rate than those that take place in bright moonlight or daytime. During the day lions tend to lie around in the shade, either digesting the previous meal or simply resting. They are seldom active more than a couple of hours after sunrise, and only become active again in the early evening. Lions eat a considerable variety of prey ranging from mice to young elephants. Individual lion prides, however, often specialise in one particular species of prey. In Hwange national park some prides specialise in buffalo, whilst others specialise in diurnal attacks on giraffe. In Botswana, porcupines and other smaller animals form a significant proportion of some pride's diets. The individual hunting techniques of how to hamstring a giraffe without getting kicked to death, or flip over a porcupine without getting full of quills, is passed on from generation to generation.

Cougar, Mountain Lion, Puma

Kingdom-Animalia
Phylum-Chordata
Class-Mammalia
Order-Carnivora
Family-Felidae
Genus-Puma
Species-P. Concolor

Species Puma concolor of large, graceful cat that lives in a wide variety of habitats in the Americas, from southern Alaska to Patagonia. In many regions, the species is restricted to wilderness areas, and some subspecies are considered endangered.  Cougars' coloration ranges from pale buff to reddish brown, with dark ears and tail tip and white rump and belly. The adult weighs from 77 to more than 220 lb 35 to 100 kg. A male may be about 9 ft 3 m long, one-third of which is tail, and stand 24 to 30 in. 60 to 75 cm tall at the shoulder. Since the cougar occasionally kills livestock, it has been intensively hunted by farmers, especially in North America, and has been basically exterminated from the eastern U.S. It is valuable for preventing overpopulation of prey animals mostly deer, in North America. In North America, cougar attacks on humans occur a few times per year, some being fatal.

Behavior, Cougars are slender and agile cats. Adults stand about 60 to 80 cm 2.0 to 2.7 ft tall at the shoulders. The length of adult males is around 2.4 m 8 ft long nose to tail, with overall ranges between 1.5 and 2.75 meters 5 and 9 feet nose to tail suggested for the species in general. Males have an average weight of about 53 to 72 kilograms 115 to 160 pounds. In rare cases, some may reach over 120 kg 260 lb. Female average weight is between 34 and 48 kg 75 and 105 lb. Cougar size is smallest close to the equator, and larger towards the poles. The head of the cat is round and the ears erect. Its powerful forequarters, neck, and jaw serve to grasp and hold large prey. It has five retractable claws on its forepaws one a dewclaw and four on its hind paws. The larger front feet and claws are adaptations to clutching prey. Cougars can be as large as jaguars, but are less muscled and powerful; where their ranges overlap, the cougar tends to be smaller than average. The cougar is on average heavier than the leopard. Despite its size, it is not typically classified among the "big cats," as it cannot roar, lacking the specialized larynx and hyoid apparatus of Panthera. Like domestic cats, cougars vocalize low-pitched hisses, growls, and purrs, as well as chirps and whistles.

They are well known for their screams, referenced in some of its common names, although these may often be the misinterpreted calls of other animals. Cougar coloring is plain hence the Latin concolor but can vary greatly between individuals and even between siblings. The coat is typically tawny, but ranges to silvery-grey or reddish, with lighter patches on the under body including the jaws, chin, and throat. Infants are spotted and born with blue eyes and rings on their tails; juveniles are pale, and dark spots remain on their flanks. Despite anecdotes to the contrary, all-black coloring melanism has never been documented in cougars. The term "black panther" is used colloquially to refer to melanistic individuals of other species, particularly jaguars and leopards. Cougars have large paws and proportionally the largest hind legs in the cat family. This physique allows it great leaping and short-sprint ability. An exceptional vertical leap of 5.4 m 18 ft is reported for the cougar. Horizontal jumping capability is suggested anywhere from 6 to 12 m 20 to 40 ft. The cougar can run as fast as 55 km/h 35 mph, but is best adapted for short, powerful sprints rather than long chases. It is adept at climbing, which allows it to evade canine competitors. Although it is not strongly associated with water, it can swim.

Food, A successful generalist predator, the cougar will eat any animal it can catch, from insects to large ungulates. Like all cats, it is an obligate carnivore, feeding only on meat. Its most important prey species are various deer species, particularly in North America; mule deer, white-tailed deer, elk, and even the large moose are taken by the cat. A survey of North America research found 68% of prey items were ungulates, especially deer. Only the Florida Panther showed variation, often preferring feral hogs and armadillos. Investigation in Yellowstone National Park showed elk followed by mule deer were the cougar's primary targets; the prey base is shared with the park's gray wolves, with whom the cougar competes for resources. Another study on winter kills, November through April in Alberta showed that ungulates accounted for greater than 99% of the cougar diet. Learned, individual prey recognition was observed, as some cougars rarely killed bighorn sheep, while others relied heavily on the species.

In the Central and South American cougar range, the ratio of deer in the diet declines. Small to mid-size mammals are preferred, including large rodents such as the capybara. Ungulates accounted for only 35% of prey items in one survey, approximately half that of North America. Competition with the larger jaguar has been suggested for the decline in the size of prey items. Other listed prey species of the cougar include mice, porcupine, and hares. Birds and small reptiles are sometimes preyed upon in the south, but this is rarely recorded in North America. Though capable of sprinting, the cougar is typically an ambush predator. It stalks through brush and trees, across ledges, or other covered spots, before delivering a powerful leap onto the back of its prey and a suffocating neck bite. It has a flexible spine which aids its killing technique. Kills are generally estimated at around one large ungulate every two weeks. The period shrinks for females raising young, and may be as short as one kill every three days when cubs are nearly mature at around 15 months. The cat drags a kill to a preferred spot, covers it with brush, and returns to feed over a period of days. It is generally reported that the cougar is a non-scavenger and will rarely consume prey it has not killed; but deer carcasses left exposed for study were scavenged by cougars in California, suggesting more opportunistic behavior.

Lifspan, Females reach sexual maturity between one and a half and three years of age. They typically average one litter every two to three years throughout their reproductive life;  the period can be as short as one year. Females are in estrus for approximately 8 days of a 23-day cycle; the gestation period is approximately 91 days. Females are sometimes reported as monogamous, but this is uncertain and polygyny may be more common. Copulation is brief but frequent. Only females are involved in parenting. Female cougars are fiercely protective of their kittens, and have been seen to successfully fight off animals as large as grizzly bears in their defense. Litter size is between one and six kittens, typically two or three. Caves and other alcoves which offer protection are used as litter dens. Born blind, kittens are completely dependent on their mother at first, and begin to be weaned at around three months of age. As they grow, they begin to go out on forays with their mother, first visiting kill sites, and after six months beginning to hunt small prey on their own.

Kitten survival rates are just over one per litter. Sub-adults leave their mother to attempt to establish their own territory at around two years of age and sometimes earlier; males tend to leave sooner. One study has shown high morbidity amongst cougars that travel farthest from the maternal range, often due to conflicts with other cougars "intraspecific" conflict. Research in New Mexico has shown that "males dispersed significantly farther than females, were more likely to traverse large expanses of non-cougar habitat, and were probably most responsible for nuclear gene flow between habitat patches." Life expectancy in the wild is reported at between 8 to 13 years, and probably averages 8 to 10; a female of at least 18 years was reported killed by hunters on Vancouver Island. Cougars may live as long as 20 years in captivity. Causes of death in the wild include disability and disease, competition with other cougars, starvation, accidents, and, where allowed, human hunting.  Feline immunodeficiency virus, an endemic AIDS-like disease in cats, is well-adapted to the cougar.

Range, Like almost all cats, the cougar is a solitary animal. Only mothers and kittens live in groups, with adults meeting only to mate. It is secretive and crepuscular, being most active around dawn and dusk. Estimates of territory sizes vary greatly. Canadian Geographic reports large male territories of 150 to 1000 square kilometers 58 to 386 sq mi with female ranges half the size. Other research suggests a much smaller lower limit of 25 km 10 sq mi but an even greater upper limit of 1300 km 500 sq mi for males. In the United States, very large ranges have been reported in Texas and the Black Hills of the northern Great Plains, in excess of 775 km 300 sq mi.

Male ranges may include or overlap with those of females but, at least where studied, not with those of other males, which serves to reduce conflict between cougars. Ranges of females may overlap slightly with each other. Scrape marks, urine, and feces are used to mark territory and attract mates. Males may scrape together a small pile of leaves and grasses and then urinate on it as a way of marking territory. Home range sizes and overall cougar abundance depend on terrain, vegetation, and prey abundance. One female adjacent to the San Andreas mountains, for instance, was found with a large range of 83 sq mi, necessitated by poor prey abundance. Research has shown cougar abundances from 0.5 animals to as much as 7 in one study in South America per 38 sq mi. Because males disperse further than females and compete more directly for mates and territory, they are most likely to be involved in conflict. Where a sub-adult fails to leave his maternal range, for example, he may be killed by his father. When males encounter each other, they hiss and spit, and may engage in violent conflict if neither backs down. Hunting or relocation of the cougar may increase aggressive encounters by disrupting territories and bringing young, transient animals into conflict with established individuals.

Habitat, The cougar was extirpated across its much eastern North American range with the exception of Florida in the two centuries after European colonization and faced grave threats in the remainder. Currently, it ranges across most western American states, the Canadian provinces of Alberta and British Columbia, and the Canadian Yukon Territory. There have been widely-debated reports of possible recolonization of eastern North America. DNA evidence has suggested its presence in eastern North America, while a consolidated map of cougar sightings shows numerous reports, from the mid-western Great Plains through to Eastern Canada. The only unequivocally known eastern population is the Florida panther, which is critically endangered. South of the Rio Grande, the International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources IUCN lists the cat in every Central and South American country except Costa Rica and Panama. While specific state and provincial statistics are often available in North America, much less is known about the cat in its southern range. The cougar's total breeding population is estimated at less than 50,000 by the IUCN, with a declining trend. U.S. state-level statistics are often more optimistic, suggesting cougar populations have rebounded. In Oregon, a healthy population of 5,000 was reported in 2006, exceeding a target of 3,000. California has actively sought to protect the cat and a similar number of cougars has been suggested, between 4,000 and 6,000.

Ecological Role, Aside from humans, no species preys upon mature cougars in the wild. The cat is not, however, the apex predator throughout much of its range. In its northern range, the cougar interacts with other powerful predators such as the brown bear and gray wolf although a lone wolf poses little threat to an adult cougar. In the south, the cougar must compete with the larger jaguar. The Yellowstone National Park ecosystem provides a fruitful microcosm to study inter-predator interaction in North America. Of the three large predators, the massive brown bear appears dominant, often although not always able to drive both the gray wolf and the cougar off their kills. One study found that brown or black bears visited 24% of cougar kills in Yellowstone and Glacier National Parks, usurping just 10% of carcasses. The gray wolf and the cougar compete more directly for prey, especially in winter. While individually more powerful than the gray wolf, a solitary cougar may be dominated by the pack structure of the canines. Wolves can steal kills and occasionally kill the cat. One report describes a large pack of fourteen wolves killing a female cougar and her kittens. Conversely, lone wolves are at a disadvantage, and have been reported killed by cougars.

Wolves more broadly affect cougar population dynamics and distribution by dominating territory and prey opportunities, and disrupting the feline's behavior. Preliminary research in Yellowstone, for instance, has shown displacement of the cougar by wolves. One researcher in Oregon notes: When there is a pack around, cougars are not comfortable around their kills or raising kittens, A lot of times a big cougar will kill a wolf, but the pack phenomenon changes the table. Both species, meanwhile, are capable of killing mid-sized predators such as bobcats and coyotes and tend to suppress their numbers. In the southern portion of its range, the cougar and jaguar share overlapping territory. The jaguar tends to take larger prey and the cougar smaller where they overlap, reducing the cougar's size. Of the two felines, the cougar appears best able to exploit a broader prey niche and smaller prey. As with any predator at or near the top of its food chain, the cougar impacts the population of prey species.

Predation by cougars has been linked to changes in the species mix of deer in a region. For example, a study in British Columbia observed that the population of mule deer, a favored cougar prey, was declining while the population of the less frequently preyed-upon white-tailed deer was increasing. The Vancouver Island marmot, an endangered species endemic to one region of dense cougar population, has seen decreased numbers due to cougar and gray wolf predation. The World Conservation Union IUCN currently lists the cougar as a "near threatened" species. It has shifted the cougar's status from "least concern," while leaving open the possibility that it may be raised to "vulnerable" when greater data on the cat's distribution becomes available. The cougar is regulated under Appendix I of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora CITES, rendering illegal international trade in specimens or parts. East of the Mississippi, the only unequivocally known cougar population is the Florida panther.

The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service recognizes both an Eastern cougar and the Florida panther, affording protection under the Endangered Species Act. Certain taxonomic authorities have collapsed both designations into the North American cougar, with Eastern or Florida subspecies not recognized, while a subspecies designation remains recognized by some conservation scientists. The most recent documented count for the Florida sub-population is 87 individuals, reported by recovery agencies in 2003. The cougar is also protected across much of the rest of its range. As of 1996, cougar hunting was prohibited in Argentina, Brazil, Bolivia, Chile, Colombia, Costa Rica, French Guiana, Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua, Panama, Paraguay, Suriname, Venezuela, and Uruguay. Costa Rica and Panama are not listed as current range countries by the IUCN. The cat had no reported legal protection in Ecuador, El Salvador, and Guyana. Regulated cougar hunting is still common in the United States and Canada; it is permitted in every U.S. state from the Rocky Mountains to the Pacific Ocean, with the exception of California.

Cougars are generally hunted with packs of dogs, until the animal is 'treed'. When the hunter arrives on the scene, he shoots it from the tree at close range. The Cougar cannot be legally killed in California except under very specific circumstances, such as when an individual is declared a public safety threat. Conservation threats to the species include persecution as a pest animal, degradation and fragmentation of its habitat, and depletion of its prey base. As with any large predator, habitat corridors and sufficient range areas are critical to the sustainability of cougar populations. Research simulations have shown that the animal faces a low extinction risk in areas of 2200 km 850 sq mi or more. As few as one to four new animals entering a population per decade markedly increases persistence, foregrounding the importance of habitat corridors.

Predation, Due to the growth of urban areas, cougar ranges increasingly overlap with areas inhabited by humans. Attacks on humans are rare, as cougar prey recognition is a learned behavior and they do not generally recognize humans as prey. Attacks on people, livestock, and pets may occur when the cat habituates to humans. There have been 108 confirmed attacks on humans with twenty fatalities in North America since 1890, fifty of the incidents having occurred since 1991. The heavily populated state of California has seen a dozen attacks since 1986 after just three from 1890 to 1985, including three fatalities. Attacks are most frequent during late spring and summer, when juvenile cougars leave their mothers and search for new territory. As with many predators, a cougar may attack if cornered, if a fleeing human being stimulates its instinct to chase, or if a person "plays dead". Exaggerating the threat to the animal through intense eye contact, loud but calm shouting, and any other action to appear larger and more menacing, may make the animal retreat. Fighting back with sticks and rocks, or even bare hands, is often effective in spurring an attacking cougar to disengage.

When the cougar does attack, it usually employs its characteristic neck bite, attempting to position its teeth between the vertebrae and into the spinal cord. Neck, head, and spinal injuries are common and sometimes fatal. Children are at greatest risk of attack, and least likely to survive an encounter. Detailed research into attacks prior to 1991 showed that 64% of all victims, and almost all fatalities, were children. The same study showed the highest proportion of attacks to have occurred in British Columbia, particularly on Vancouver Island where cougar populations are especially dense.

BobCat

Kingdom-animalia
Phylum-chordata
Class-Mammalia
Order-Carnivora
FamilyFelidae
Genus-Lynx
Species-L. Rufus

Bobtailed, long-legged North American cat Lynx rufus found in forests and deserts from southern Canada to southern Mexico. It is a close relative of the Lynx and Caracal. Bobcats have large paws and tufted ears; are 24 to 40 in. 60 to 100 cm long, excluding the 4 to 8 in. 10 to 20 cm tail; stand 20 to 24 in. 50 to 60 cm at the shoulder; and weigh 15 to 33 lb 7 to 15 kg. The fur is pale brown to reddish with black spots. Bobcats are nocturnal and generally solitary. They feed on small mammals and some birds and are important for controlling rodent and rabbit populations. They are sometimes found in suburban areas.

Characteristics, The Bobcat resembles other species of the Lynx genus but is on average the smallest of the four. Its coat is variable, though generally tan to grayish brown, with black streaks on the body and dark bars on the forelegs and tail. Its spotted patterning allows it to blend into its environment. The ears are black tipped and pointed, with short black tufts. There is generally an off-white color on the lips, chin, and underparts. Bobcats in the desert regions of the southwest have the lightest colored coats, while those in the northern, forested regions are darkest.

Kittens are born well furred and already have their spots. The face appears wide due to ruffs of extended hair beneath the ears. The fur is brittle but quite long and dense. The nose of the Bobcat is pinkish-red, and it has a base color of gray, yellowish, or brownish-red on its face, sides, and back. Bobcat eyes are yellow with black pupils. The pupils are shaped vertically and will widen during nocturnal activity to maximize light reception. The adult male Bobcat is 28 to 47 inches 70 to 120 cm long, averaging 36 inches 90 cm; this includes a stubby 4 to 7 inch 10 to 18 cm tail, which has a "bobbed" appearance and gives the species its name. It stands about 14 or 15 inches 36 to 38 cm at the shoulders.Adult males usually range from 16 to 30 pounds 7 to 14 kg; females average about 20 pounds 9 kg. The Bobcat is muscular, and its hind legs are longer than its front legs, giving it a bobbing gait.

At birth it weighs 0.6 to 0.75 pounds 280 to 340 g and is about 10 inches 25 cm in length. By its first year it will reach about 10 pounds 4.5 kg. The cat is largest size in its northern range and in open habitats. A Morphological size comparison study in the eastern United States found a divergence in the location of the largest male and female specimens. The cat has sharp hearing and vision, and a good sense of smell. It is also an excellent climber. The Bobcat will swim when it needs to, but will normally avoid water. A few Melanistic bobcats have been sighted and captured in Florida. They appear black, but may actually still exhibit a spot pattern.

Tracking, Bobcat tracks show four toes and no claw marks, due to retractable claws. The tracks can range in size from 1 to 3 inches 2 to 8 cm; the average is about 1.8 inches as seen in photograph at right. When walking or trotting, the tracks are spaced roughly 8 to 18 inches 20 to 46 cm apart. The Bobcat can make great strides when running, often from 4 to 8 feet 1 to 3 m.

Behavior, The Bobcat is crepuscular, generally most active at twilight and dawn. It keeps on the move from three hours before sunset until about midnight, and then again from before dawn until three hours after sunrise. Each night it will Move from 2 to 7 miles 3 to 11 km along its habitual route. This behavior may vary seasonally, as Bobcats become more diurnal during fall and winter. This is a response to the activity of their prey, which are more active during the day in colder months.

Range, Bobcat activities are confined to well-defined territories, which vary in size depending on sex and distribution of prey. The home range is marked with feces, urine scent, and by clawing prominent trees in the area. In its territory the Bobcat will have numerous places of shelter, usually a main den, and several auxiliary shelters on the outer extent of its range, such as hollow logs, brush piles, thickets, or under rock ledges. The odor of its den is strong. The sizes of Bobcat home ranges vary significantly; a World Conservation Union IUCN summary of research finds suggests ranges anywhere from 0.02 to 126 mi 0.6 to 326 km. One study in Kansas found resident males to have roughly a 8 mi 20 km range and females less than half that. Transient Bobcats were found to have both a larger roughly 22 mi or 57 km and less well defined home range.

Kittens had the smallest range at about 3 mi 7 km. Research has shown that dispersal from the natal range is most pronounced with males. Reports on seasonal variation in range size have been equivocal. One study found a large variation in male range sizes, from 16 mi 41 km in summer up to 40 mi 100 km in winter. Another found that female Bobcats, especially those reproductively active, expanded their home range in winter, but that males merely shifted their range without expanding it, which was consistent with numerous earlier studies. Other research in various American states has shown little or no seasonal variation. Like most felines, the Bobcat is largely solitary but ranges will often overlap. Unusually for a cat, males are more tolerant of overlap, while females rarely wander into others' ranges. Given their smaller ranging, two or more females may reside within a male's home range.

When multiple male territories overlap a dominance hierarchy is often established resulting in the exclusion of some transients from favored areas. In-line with wide estimates of home range size, population density figures are divergent, anywhere from 1 to 38 Bobcats per 25 mi² 65 km in one survey. The average is estimated at one Bobcat per every 5 mi² 13 km, or slightly less. A link has been observed between population density and sex ratio. One study noted that a dense, unharvested population in California had a sex ratio of 2.1 males per female. When the density decreased, the sex ratio skewed to 0.86 males per female. Another study observed a similar ratio, and suggested that males may be better able to cope with the increased competition, and that this would help limit reproduction until various factors would lower the density.

Food, The Bobcat is able to go for long periods without food, but will eat heavily when prey is abundant. During lean periods, it will often prey on larger animals that it can catch and come back to later. The Bobcat hunts by stalking its prey and then ambushing it with a short chase or pounce. Its preference is for mammals about 1.5 to 12.5 pounds 0.7 to 5.7 kg in weight. Its main prey varies by region. In the eastern United States it is cottontail rabbits, and in the north it is the Snowshoe Hare. When these prey exist together, as in New England, they both form the primary sustenance of the Bobcat. In the far south, the rabbit and hare are sometimes replaced by cotton rats as the primary food source. The Bobcat is an opportunistic predator that, unlike the more specialized Canadian Lynx, will readily vary its prey selection. Research has shown that diet diversification positively correlates to a decline in numbers of the Bobcat's principal prey; the abundance of its main prey species is thus the main determinant of overall diet.

The Bobcat hunts animals of different sizes, and will adjust its hunting techniques accordingly. With small animals, such as rodents, squirrels, birds, and also fish and insects, it will hunt in areas known to be abundant in prey, and will lie, crouch, or stand still and wait for victims to wander close. It will then pounce, grabbing its prey with its sharp, retractable claws. For slightly larger animals, such as rabbits and hares, it will stalk from a covering and wait until they come within 20 to 35 feet 6 to 10 m before rushing in to attack. Less commonly it will feed on larger animals such as foxes, minks, skunks, small dogs and house cats. It has been known to kill deer, especially in winter when smaller prey is scarce, or when deer populations become more abundant. One study in the Everglades showed a large majority of kills were fawns (33 of 39) but that prey up to eight times the Bobcat's weight could be successfully taken.

It stalks the deer, often when the deer is lying down, then rushes in and grabs it by the neck before biting through the throat, base of the skull, or chest. While the Bobcat rarely kills deer, when it does it eats its fill and then buries the carcass under snow or leaves, often returning to it several times to feed. The Bobcat prey base overlaps with that of other mid-sized predators of a similar ecological niche. Research in Maine has shown little evidence of competitive relationships between the Bobcat and Coyote or Red Fox, separation distances and territory overlap appeared random amongst simultaneously monitored animals. With the Canadian Lynx, however, the interspecific relationship affects distribution patterns: competitive exclusion from the Bobcat likely prevented any further southward expansion of the range of its felid cousin.

Breeding, Bobcats typically live to six or eight years of age, with a few reaching beyond ten. The longest they have been known to live is 16 years in the wild and 32 years in captivity. They generally begin breeding by their second summer, though females may start as early as their first year. Each year by September or October, sperm production begins, and the male will be fertile into the summer. A dominant male will travel with a female and mate with her several times, generally from winter until early spring, varying by location, but most often mating during February and March.

The two may undertake a number of different behaviors, including bumping, chasing, and ambushing. Other males may be in attendance, but remain uninvolved. Once the male see that the female is receptive, he grasps her in the typical felid neck grip. The female may go on to mate with other male cats, and males will generally mate with several females. During courtship, the otherwise silent Bobcat may let out loud screams, hisses, or other sounds. Research in Texas has suggested that establishing a home range is necessary for breeding; studied animals with no set range had no identified offspring. The female has an estrous cycle of 44 days, with the estrus lasting five to ten days. Bobcats remain reproductively active throughout their lives.

The female raises the young alone. One to six, but usually two to four, kittens are born in April or May, after roughly 60 to 70 days of gestation. There may sometimes be a second litter, with births as late as September. The female generally gives birth in some sort of enclosed space, usually a small cave or hollow log. The young open their eyes by the ninth or tenth day. They start exploring their surroundings at four weeks and are weaned at about two months. Within three to five months they begin to travel with their mother. They will be hunting by themselves by their first fall and usually disperse shortly thereafter. In Michigan, however, they have been observed staying with their mother as late as the next spring.

Predation, The adult Bobcat has few predators other than man, although it may be killed in interspecific conflict. Cougars and Gray Wolves will kill adult Bobcats, a pattern repeatedly observed in Yellowstone National Park. Kittens may be taken by several predators including owls, eagles, coyotes, foxes, as well as other adult male Bobcats, when prey populations are not abundant, fewer kittens are likely to reach adulthood. Diseases, accidents, hunters, automobiles, and starvation are the other leading causes of death. Juveniles show high mortality shortly after leaving their mothers, while still perfecting their hunting technique.

One study of fifteen Bobcats showed yearly survival rates for both sexes averaged 0.62, in line with other research suggesting 0.56 to 0.67. There have also been reports of cannibalism occurring when prey levels are low, but it is very rare and does not significantly influence the population. The Bobcat may harbor external parasites, mostly ticks and fleas, and will often carry the parasites of its prey, especially rabbits and squirrels. Internal parasites Endoparasites are especially common in Bobcats. One study found an average infection rate of 52% from Toxoplasma gondii, but with great regional variation. One mite in particular, Lynxacarus morlani, has to date only been found on the Bobcat. It is still unclear how large a role parasites and diseases play in the mortality of the Bobcat, but they may account for greater mortality than starvation, accidents, and predation. The Bobcat is valued both for fur and sport, and has long been hunted and trapped by humans, it has maintained a high population, even in the southern United States where it is extensively hunted. Indirectly, kittens are most vulnerable to hunting given their dependence on an adult female for the first few months of life. In the 1970s and 1980s Bobcat fur saw an unprecedented rise in price causing further interest in hunting; by the early 1990s prices had dropped significantly. Regulated hunting still continues, with half of mortality of some populations being attributed to this cause. As a result, the rate of Bobcat deaths is skewed in winter, when hunting season is generally open.

Habitat, The Bobcat is an exceptionally adaptable animal. It prefers woodlands deciduous, coniferous, or mixed but unlike the other Lynx species, however it does not depend exclusively on the deep forest. It ranges from the humid swamps of Florida to rugged mountain areas. It will make its home near agricultural areas, if rocky ledges, swamps, or forested tracts are present, its spotted coat serving as camouflage. The population of the Bobcat depends primarily on the population of its prey; other principal factors in the selection of habitat type include protection from severe weather, availability of resting and den sites, dense cover for hunting and escape, and freedom from disturbance.

The Bobcat's range does not seem to be limited by human populations as long as it can still find a suitable habitat; only large, intensively cultivated tracts are unsuitable for the species. The animal may appear in backyards in "urban edge" environments, where human development intersects with natural habitats. If chased by a dog it will usually climb up a tree. The historical range of the Bobcat was from southern Canada, throughout the United States, and as far south as Oaxaca, Mexico, and it still persists across much of this area. Range maps typically show a pocket of territory in the U.S. Midwest and parts of the Northeast where it is no longer thought to exist, including southern Minnesota, eastern South Dakota, Iowa, and much of Missouri, mostly due to habitat changes from modern agricultural practices. While thought to no longer exist in western New York and Pennsylvania, multiple confirmed sightings of Bobcats have been recently reported in New York's Southern Tier and in central New York. Its population in Canada is limited due to both snow depth and the presence of the Canadian Lynx. The Bobcat does not tolerate deep snow, and will hole up and wait out heavy storm, it lacks the large, padded feet of the Canadian Lynx and does not support its weight on snow as efficiently. The Bobcat is not entirely at a disadvantage where its range meets that of the larger felid: displacement of the Canadian Lynx by the aggressive Bobcat has been observed where they interact in Nova Scotia, while the clearing of coniferous forests for agriculture has led to a northward retreat of the Canadian Lynx range to the advantage of the Bobcat. In northern and central Mexico, the cat is found in dry scrubland and forests of pine and oak, its range ends at the tropical southern portion of the country.

Conservation and Monitioring, The Bobcat is listed in Appendix II of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora CITES, which means it is not considered threatened with extinction but that hunting and trading must be closely monitored. The animal is regulated in all three of its range countries and it is found in a number of protected areas of the United States, its principal territory. Estimates from the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service placed Bobcat numbers between 700,000 and 1,500,000 in the U.S.

In 1988, with increased range and population density suggesting even greater numbers in subsequent years, for these reasons, the U.S. has petitioned CITES to remove the cat from Appendix II. Populations in Canada and Mexico remain stable and healthy. The IUCN lists it as a species of "least concern," noting that it is relatively widespread and abundant but that information from southern Mexico is poor. Though the Bobcat once inhabited all of the American Midwest, they are now extirpated in much of the region, a result of man-made habitat changes. Today the species is considered endangered in Ohio, Indiana, and Iowa. It was removed from the threatened list of Illinois in 1999, and in Pennsylvania limited hunting and trapping is once again allowed, after having been banned from 1970 to 1999. The Bobcat also suffered population declines in New Jersey at the turn of the nineteenth century, mainly because of commercial and agricultural developments causing habitat fragmentation; by 1972, the Bobcat was given full legal protection, and listed as endangered in the state in 1991. L. rufus escuinipae, the subspecies found in Mexico, was for a time considered endangered by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, but was delisted in 2005.

The Wild Cat Lynx BeWare of Legalty!!

The hunting of lynxes is illegal in many countries. The Iberian Lynx is almost extinct and the killing of any individuals has been outlawed since the 1970s in Spain and Portugal.
In 2000, the U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service designated the Canadian Lynx a Threatened species in the lower 48 states!

Atlantic SwordFish

Kingdom-Animalia
Phylum-Chordata
Class-Actinopterygii
Order-Perciformes
Family-Xiphiidae
Genus-Xiphias
Species-X. gladius

Description, Swordfish Xiphias gladius are large, highly migratory, predatory fish characterized by a long, flat bill. They are a popular sport fish, though elusive. Swordfish are elongated, round-bodied, and lose all teeth and scales by adulthood. The International Game Fish Association's all-tackle angling record for a swordfish was a 1,182 lb 535.15 kg specimen taken off Chile in 1953.

This large food and sport fish is found in temperate waters throughout the world. Swordfish average between 200 to 600 pounds, though some specimens caught weigh over 1,000 pounds. They have a distinctive saillike dorsal fin and a striking swordlike projection extending from the upper jaw. Their mild-flavored, moderately fat flesh is firm, dense and meatlike, making swordfish one of the most popular fish in the United States. Fresh swordfish is available from late spring to early fall, whereas it's available frozen year-round. Both forms are sold in steaks and chunks. Because it's so firm, swordfish can be prepared in almost any manner including sautéing, grilling, broiling, baking and poaching. See also fish. Species Xiphias gladius of prized food and game fish, found in warm and temperate oceans worldwide. A slender, scaleless fish, it has a tall dorsal fin and a long extension of the snout, used for slashing at prey. The "sword" is flat, rather than rounded as in marlins. The swordfish is also distinguished by its lack of teeth and pelvic fins. It is purplish or bluish above, silvery below, and grows as large as 15 ft 4.5 m and 1,000 lb 450 kg. Though a popular food fish, it may have dangerous levels of mercury concentrated in its flesh. Large food and game fish, Xiphias gladius, of the warmer Atlantic and Pacific waters, related to the sailfish. It is named for its sharp, broad, elongated upper jaw, which it uses to flail and pierce its prey of smaller fish, rising beneath a school to kill and then devour. Swordfish breed as far N as Nova Scotia; they are often seen basking on the water's surface, and their fins are sometimes mistaken for those of sharks. They may reach 15 ft 457 cm and 1,000 lb 450 kg; however, specimens half this size are considered large. Swordfish were formerly harpooned commercially but now are taken using long lines with multiple baited hooks. Conservation efforts are underway to rebuild depleted stocks. Swordfish are classified in the phylum Chordata, subphylum Vertebrata, class Osteichthyes, order Perciformes, family Xiphiidae.

Physiology, The swordfish is named after its sharp bill, resembling a sword Latin gladius, which together with its streamlined physique allows it to cut through the water with great ease and agility. Contrary to belief the "sword" is not used to spear, but instead may be used to slash at its prey in order to injure the prey animal, to make for an easier catch. Mainly the swordfish relies on its great speed and agility in the water to catch its prey. One possible defensive use for the sword-like bill is for protection from its few natural predators. The shortfin mako shark is one of the rare sea creatures big enough and fast enough to chase down and kill an adult swordfish, but they don't always win. Sometimes in the struggle with a shark a swordfish can kill it by ramming it in the gills or belly. Females grow larger than males with males over 300 lb 135 kg being rare. Females mature at 4 to 5 years of age in northwest Pacific while males mature first at about 3 to 4 years. In the North Pacific, batch spawning occurs in water warmer than 24 °C from March to July and year round in the equatorial Pacific. Adult swordfish forage includes pelagic fish including small tuna, dorado, barracuda, flying fish, mackerel, as well as benthic species of hake and rockfish. Squid are important when available. Swordfish are thought to have few predators as adults although juveniles are vulnerable to predation by large pelagic fish. While swordfish are cold-blooded animals, they have special organs next to their eyes to heat their eyes and also their brain. Temperatures of 10 to 15 C° above the surrounding water temperature have been measured. The heating of the eyes greatly improves the vision, and subsequently improves their ability to catch prey. Out of the 25 000+ species of bony fish, only about 22 are known to have the ability to heat selected body parts above the temperature of the surrounding water.

Breeding, Swordfish have also been observed spawning in the Atlantic Ocean, in water less than 250 ft. 75 m deep. Estimates vary considerably, but females may carry from 1 million to 29 million eggs in their gonads. Solitary males and females appear to pair up during the spawning season. Spawning occurs year-round in the Caribbean Sea, Gulf of Mexico, the Florida coast and other warm equatorial waters, while it occurs in the spring and summer in cooler regions. The most recognized spawning site is in the Mediterranean, off the coast of Italy. The height of this well-known spawning season is in July and August, when males are often observed chasing females. The pelagic eggs are buoyant, measuring 1.6 to 1.8mm in diameter. Embryonic development occurs during the 2 ½ days following fertilization. As the only member of its family, the swordfish has unique-looking larvae. The pelagic larvae are 4 mm long at hatching and live near the surface. At this stage, body is only lightly pigmented. The snout is relatively short and the body has many distinct, prickly scales. With growth, the body narrows. By the time the larvae reach half an inch long 12 mm, the bill is notably elongated, but both the upper and lower portions are equal in length. The dorsal fin runs the length of the body. As growth continues, the upper portion of the bill grows proportionately faster than the lower bill, eventually producing the characteristic prolonged upper bill. Specimens up to approximately 9 inches 23 cm in length have a dorsal fin that extends the entire length of the body. With further growth, the fin develops a single large lobe, followed by a short portion that still reaches to the caudal peduncle. By approximately 20 inches 52 cm, the second dorsal fin has developed, and at approximately 60 inches 150 cm, only the large lobe remains of the first dorsal fin.

Current Observation, In 1998, the Natural Resources Defense Council and SeaWeb hired Fenton Communications to conduct an advertising campaign to promote their assertion that the swordfish population was in danger due to its popularity as a restaurant entree. The resulting "Give Swordfish a Break" promotion was wildly successful, with 750 prominent U.S. chefs agreeing to remove North Atlantic swordfish from their menus, and also persuaded many supermarkets and consumers across the country. The advertising campaign was repeated by the national media in hundreds of print and broadcast stories, as well as extensive regional coverage. It earned the Silver Anvil award from the Public Relations Society of America as well as Time magazine's award for the top five environmental stories of 1998. Subsequently, the National Marine Fisheries Service proposed a swordfish protection plan that incorporated the campaign's policy suggestions. Then-President Clinton called for a ban on the sale and import of swordfish and in a landmark decision by the federal government, 132,670 square miles of the Atlantic ocean were placed off-limits to fishing as recommended by the sponsors. In the North Atlantic, the swordfish stock is nearly rebuilt, but biomass remains slightly below that at which Maximum sustainable yield is produced, and abundance is increasing. This stock is considered a moderate conservation concern until the stock is fully rebuilt. There are no robust stock assessments for swordfish in the northwestern Pacific or South Atlantic, and there is a paucity of data concerning stock status in these regions. These stocks are considered unknown and a moderate conservation concern. The southwestern Pacific stock is a moderate concern due to model uncertainty, increasing catches, and declining CPUEs catch per unit effort. Overfishing is likely occurring in the Indian Ocean, and fishing mortality exceeds the maximum recommended level in the Mediterranean, thus these stocks are considered of high conservation concern.

Range, Recreational swordfishing throughout the world, and especially in South Florida, has gained tremendous popularity. With the ban on longlining along parts of the eastern seashore, swordfish populations are showing signs of recovery. The recovery is far from complete and is not a fraction of what it was in the 70's when recreational swordfish was discovered off of the coast of South Florida and led by anglers such as Habana Joe. To catch a swordfish off of Florida, most anglers such as the infamous Habana Joe drift live or dead baits in the Gulfstream. Boats drift beam to sea, which is why center consoles are so popular for this type of fishing. From Miami's Government Cut, Haulover Inlet or Port Everglades, the run to the swordfish grounds is less than 20 miles. Given the speed of the Gulfstream though, and fishing the majority of the night, you may end up as far as 40 to 50 miles from your homeport. From talking to longliners who used to fish in our waters, swordfish can be found in various parts of the Gulfstream, but the majority of recreational anglers fish a corridor of water that is 3 to 4 miles wide, but starts in the upper Keys and ends in Palm Beach. The reason that this area is so popular is due to the bottom terrain. In this lane there are a series of rises and falls in the depth contour which provides upwelling and seems to hold bait better than open expanses of flat bottom.

Grouper

Scientific Classification
Kingdom-Animalia
Phylum-Chordata
Class-Actinopterygii
Order-Perciformes
Family-Serranidae
Subfamily-Epinephelinae

GROO-per Although some weigh 1⁄3 ton, the average size of this fish is from 5 to 15 pounds. Groupers are found in the waters of the Gulf of Mexico and the North and South Atlantic. They're marketed whole as well as in fillets and steaks. They have a lean, firm flesh that is suitable for baking, broiling, frying, poaching or steaming. The grouper's skin, which is very strongly flavored, should always be removed before cooking. The most popular members of this sea bass family are the black grouper, Nassau grouper, red grouper and yellowmouth or yellowfin grouper. See also fish.

Any of numerous species of fishes family Serranidae widely distributed in warm seas, especially members of the genera Epinephelus and Mycteroperca. Groupers are characteristically large-mouthed, heavy-bodied fishes. Some species grow larger than 6 ft about 2 m long and heavier than 500 lb 225 kg. Groupers are usually dull green or brown; some species can change their colour pattern, and deepwater individuals may be much redder than nearshore ones. They are prime food fishes, though a few species carry a toxic substance in their flesh and can cause poisoning when consumed, and they provide sport for anglers and spearfishermen. See also jewfish; sea bass.

Common name for a large carnivorous member of the family Serranidae sea bass family, abundant in tropical and subtropical seas and highly valued as food fish. There are several genera, notably Epinephelus and Mycteroperca, including some 100 species, most of which are characterized by bright markings that change in color and pattern to match the background. In the West Indies and the Florida Keys are found the yellowfin grouper, noted for its many beautiful color phases; the coney, the smallest 9 in./22.5 cm grouper, colored a livid reddish gray with blue spots; and the Nassau grouper, the rock hind, and the gag. The largest of the sea bass are the groupers called jewfishes the black jewfish, or Warsaw grouper, Hemichromis bimaculatus, reaches a length of 6 ft 183 cm and a weight of 500 lb 225 kg and the spotted jewfish is even larger up to 600 lb/270 kg. The red grouper and the black grouper, common N to the Carolinas, form the bulk of the commercial catch; both species weigh up to 50 lb 22.5 kg. Groupers are classified in the phylum Chordata, subphylum Vertebrata, class Osteichthyes, order Perciformes, family Serranidae.

From Austrailia Groupers fishes Not all serranids are called groupers; the family also includes the sea basses. The common name grouper is usually given to fish in one of two large genera: Epinephelus and Mycteroperca. In addition, the species classified in the small genera Anyperidon, Cromileptes, Dermatolepis, Gracila, Saloptia and Triso are also called groupers. Fish classified in the genus Plectropomus are referred to as coral groupers. These genera are all classified in the subfamily Epiphelinae. However, some of the hamlets genus Alphestes, the hinds genus Cephalopholis, the lyretails genus Variola and some other small genera Gonioplectrus, Niphon, Paranthias are also in this subfamily, and occasional species in other serranid genera have common names involving the word "grouper". Nonetheless, the word "groupers" on its own is usually taken as meaning the subfamily Epinephelinae. The word "grouper" comes from Portuguese garoupa, and not from the English word group. In New Zealand and Australia, the name for several species of Grouper is referred to as Groper, as in the Epinephelus lanceolatus Queensland Groper. In the Middle East, the fish is known as Hammour, and is widely eaten, especially in the Gulf Region. Groupers are teleosts, typically having a stout body and a large mouth. They are not built for long-distance fast swimming. They can be quite large, and lengths over a meter and weights up to 100 kg are not uncommon, though obviously in such a large group species vary considerably.

They swallow prey rather than biting pieces off it. They do not have much tooth on the edges of their jaws, but they have heavy crushing tooth plates inside the pharynx. They habitually eat fish, octopus, crab, and lobster. They lie in wait, rather than chasing in open water. According to the film-maker Graham Ferreira, there is at least one record, from Mozambique, of a human being killed by one of these fish. Their mouth and gills form a powerful sucking system that sucks their prey in from a distance. They also use their mouth to dig into sand in order to form their shelters under big rocks, jetting it out through their gills. Their gill muscles are so powerful, that it is nearly impossible to pull them out of their cave if they feel attacked and extend them in order to lock themselves in. There is some research indicating that roving coral groupers Plectropomus pessuliferus sometimes cooperate with giant morays in hunting. Most fish spawn between May and August. They are protogynous hermaphrodite, i.e. the young are predominantly female but transform into males as they grow larger. They grow about a kilogram per year. Generally they are adolescent until they reach three kilograms, when they become female. At about 10 to 12 kg they turn to male. Usually, males have a harem of three to fifteen females in the broader region. In the rare case that no male exists close by, the largest female turns faster. Most males look much wilder and bigger than females, even if they happen to be smaller compare bull to cow, or rooster to chicken, or lion to lioness. Many groupers are important food fish, and some of them are now farmed. Unlike most other fish species which are chilled or frozen, groupers are generally sold alive in markets. Any species are popular fish for sea-angling. Some species are small enough to be kept in aquaria, though even the small species are inclined to grow rapidly.